Inca Shadow Casting Observations in Cuzco

de Betanzos Juan , Suma y narración de los Incas (Madrid, [1557] 1987), 73–74 [Pt I, ch.15]; Anonymous, “Discurso de la sucesión de los Yngas”, in Juicio de límites entre el Perú y Bolivia, ed. by Maúrtua V. (Madrid, [c. 1570] 1906), viii, 149–65, pp. 150–2; de Ondegardo Juan Polo , “Los errores y supersticiones de los Indios sacadas del tratado y aueriguacion que hizo el licenciado Polo”, in Doctrina Christiana y catecismo para instruccion de indios (Madrid, [1584] 1985, facsimile of trilingual text), 270; de la Vega Inca Garcilaso , Comentarios reales de los Incas (Ayacucho, [1609] 1976), i, 104–5 [Bk 2, ch. 22]; Guaman Felipe de Ayala Poma , El primer nueva coronica y buen gobierno (México, [c. 1614] 1980), 235[237], 884[898]; Cobo Bernabe , Historia del nuevo mundo (Madrid, [1653] 1956), ii, 172, 185 [Bk 13, chs 13, 16]; see also Aveni Anthony F. , “Horizon astronomy in Incaic Cuzco”, in Archaeoastronomy in the Americas, ed. by Williamson R. A. (Los Altos, 1981), 305–18, p. 307, fig. 25.1 bottom.

Aveni , “Horizon astronomy in Incaic Cuzco” (ref. 1); Zuidema R. Tom , “Inca observations of the solar and lunar passages through zenith and anti-zenith in Cuzco”, in Archaeoastronomy in the Americas, ed. by Williamson (ref. 1), 319–42; Bauer Brian S. , El espacio sagrado de los Incas, el sistema de ceques del Cuzco (Cuzco, 2000); Bauer Brian S. Dearborn David S. P. , Astronomy and empire in the ancient Andes (Austin, 1995); see also Zuidema R. T. , “Catachillay: The role of the Pleiades and of the Southern Cross and α and β Centauri in the calendar of the Incas”, in Ethnoastronomy and archaeoastronomy in the American tropics, ed. by Aveni A. F. (New York, 1982), 203–29, pp. 212–15.

Ghezzi Ivan Ruggles Clive , “Chankillo: A 2300-year-old solar observatory in coastal Peru”, Science, cccxvi (issue of 2 March 2007), 1239–43.

de Cieza de León Pedro , Obras completas (Madrid, [1549–54] 1984), 176 [Pt II, ch. 26]; Bauer Dearborn , op. cit. (ref. 2), 51–52; and Anthony F. Aveni, Stairways to the stars: Skywatching in three great ancient cultures (New York, 1997), 174.

de la Vega Garcilaso , op. cit. (ref. 1), 105–6 [Bk 2, ch. 22]; Bauer and Dearborn, op. cit. (ref. 2), 46–50; and Aveni , Stairways to the stars (ref. 3), 174.

Zuidema , “Inca observations of the solar and lunar passages through zenith and anti-zenith in Cuzco” (ref. 2); Aveni , “Horizon astronomy in Incaic Cuzco” (ref. 1); Bauer and Dearborn, op. cit. (ref. 2), 92–94; Ziółkowski Mariusz S. , “El calendario metropolitano inca”, in Time and calendars in the Inca empire, ed. by Ziółkowski M. Sadowski R. M. (Oxford, 1989), 129–66; idem, La guerra de los Wawqi: Los objetivos y los mecanismos de la rivalidad dentro de la élite inka, siglo XV—XVI (Quito, 1997), 393–5.

Holguin Diego Gonçalez , Vocabvlario de la lengva general de todo el Perv llamada lengua qquichua o del Inca (Lima, [1609] 1952), 324, 341; Bertonio Ludovico , Vocabulario de la lengua aymara (Cochabamba, [1612] 1984, facsimile edition), Pt II, 327; Ziółkowski Mariusz S. Sadowski Robert M. , La arqueoastronomía en la investigación de las culturas andinas (Quito, 1992), 199–200.

“Sunaque. Zenith, o punto del cielo que corresponde a nuestra cabeza [Zenith, or the point of the sky which corresponds to our head]. Inti, vel Phakhsi sunaquehua, l. sunaquenquihua. La Luna, o el Sol está en el Zenith [The moon, or the sun is in zenith]. Inti cchutuhua, l. cchutunquihua: El medio día [midday]. Sunaque[,] cchuto: La coronilla, o lo mas alto de la cabeça [The head's uppermost part]”, Bertonio , op. cit. (ref. 7), Pt II, 327, author's translation, orthography modified.

Zuidema , “Inca observations of the solar and lunar passages through zenith and anti-zenith in Cuzco” (ref. 2); and Aveni , “Horizon astronomy in Incaic Cuzco” (ref. 1). The term ‘anti-zenith’ refers to the date in which the sun sets 180 degrees from the point of a sunrise on a day of a zenithal passage, as an approximation of the date of the sun's nadir.

Dearborn David S. P. White Raymond E. , “The ‘Torreon’ at Machu Picchu as an observatory”, Archaeoastronomy, no. 5 (1983), S37–49.

Zuidema R. Tom , “The sidereal lunar calendar of the Incas”, in Archaeoastronomy in the New World , ed. by Aveni A. F. (Cambridge, 1982), 59–107; and Ziółkowski, “El calendario metropolitano inca” (ref. 6). Garcilaso's account of equinox observation by shadow gnomon comprised an element of R. T. Zuidema's first reconstruction of the Inca calendar, “The Inca calendar”, in Native American astronomy, ed. by Aveni A. F. (Austin and London, 1977), 219–59, p. 254; for other arguments in favour of equinox observations see pp. 229, 233, 244–6.

de la Vega Garcilaso , op. cit. (ref. 1), 105–6 [Bk 2, ch. 22], translation by Bauer Dearborn , op. cit. (ref. 2), 47.

Ibid.

de Molina Cristobal , Relacion de las fabulas y ritos de los Ingas , ed. by Urbano H. Duviols P. (Madrid, [c. 1575] 1988), 49.

One of them may have been the lost work of Polo de Ondegardo.

Cobo , op. cit. (ref. 1), 207–8 [Bk 13, ch. 25].

“… y los que se avían de hacer cavalleros se leventavan e yban por su horden haciendo la mucha…. Y echa la dicha adoración estavan un poco parados mientras venía la ora de mediodía; en pareciendoles que lo hera, bolvían a hacer su reberencia a las guacas y pedían licencia al Ynca para yr a hacer sus sacrificios”, Molina , op. cit. (ref. 14), 100.

Ibid., 67–68. Aepiran is probably the misspelling of Atpitan, today's Acpita, where a groups of stones was considered Huanacauri's sons, Rowe in Bauer, El espacio sagrado de los Incas (ref. 2), 111.

de la Vega Garcilaso , op. cit. (ref. 1), 105 [Bk 2, ch. 22].

Molina , op. cit. (ref. 14), 73.

Ibid., 98.

Ibid., 84.

Earls John , Planificación agrícola andina: Bases para un mantenimiento cibernético de sistemas de andenes (Lima, 1989), 139–40.

Zuidema , “The Inca calendar” (ref. 11); idem, “The sidereal lunar calendar of the Incas” (ref. 11); idem, “Catachillay” (ref. 2); Ziółkowski, “El calendario metropolitano inca” (ref. 6); idem, “Knots and oddities: The ‘quipu-calendar’ or supposed Cuzco luni-sidereal calendar”, in Time and calendars in the Inca empire, ed. by Ziółkowski M. Sadowski R. M. (Oxford, 1989), 197–208; Sadowski Robert M. , “A few remarks on the astronomy of R. T. Zuidema's ‘quipu-calendar’”, ibid., 209–13; Bauer Dearborn , op. cit. (ref. 2), 59–66; and Aveni Anthony F. , “Archaeoastronomy in the ancient Americas”, Journal of archaeological research, ii/2 (2003), 149–91.