Work Cognition and Psychological Well-Being: The Role of Cognitive Engagement as a Partial Mediator

Abstract

Due to the emergence of positive psychology, literature that has focused on happiness in the workplace has increased over the past two decades. Well-being has become a critical topic for today’s policy makers. Firms have also begun to shed more light on how to enhance employees’ well-being. This study examined how employees’ cognition of work environment related to cognitive engagement and psychological well-being in a South Korean conglomerate. Results of the structural equation modeling showed that perceived work cognitions of 518 employees accounted for 31% of the variance in cognitive engagement. Employees’ work cognition and cognitive engagement explained 50% of the variance in psychological well-being. In addition, cognitive engagement played a role as a partial mediator. Human resource/organization development practitioners and managers might enhance the level of employee engagement and psychological well-being by providing positive organizational support, by redesigning job context, and by enhancing relations with their leaders and coworkers.

Keywords

psychological well-being engagement work cognition

Happiness, the immediate positive affect of a person’s well-being, has emerged as an important topic for researchers, practitioners, and policy makers (Judge & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2011). As a quantitative benchmark, happiness provides a broad indicator of human welfare that goes beyond traditional measures of income, poverty, health, education, and government viewed separately (Graham, 2010). Specific examples of the growing popularity of happiness as a benchmark include the United Nations World Happiness Report (published since 2012), which ranks 157 countries based on six critical indicators: gross domestic product per capita, healthy years of life expectancy, social support, trust, perceived freedom to make life decisions, and generosity (Helliwell, Layard, & Sachs, 2016). Also, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) publishes the Better Life Index annually, using multidimensional well-being measures covering all aspects of life ranging from civic engagement to housing, household income to work-life balance, as well as skills and health status (OECD, 2016). Moreover, in addition to shareholder value maximization, organizations have begun to shed light on alternative business purposes such as enhancement of stakeholders’ well-being or happiness instead of more traditional measures (Joo, Park, & Lim, 2016). Researchers (e.g., Cropanzano & Wright, 2001; Lyubomirski, 2001; Seligman, 2002) have equated the term well-being with the term happiness. Because the term happiness lacks scientific precision, however, we will use well-being in this study.

Problem Statement and Purpose of the Study

Within the economic, medical, psychological, and sociological literature, organizational researchers have long studied the topic of individual well-being in work and life (Blanchflower & Oswald, 2011; Judge & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2011). More recently, employee well-being has begun to be researched empirically in the field of organizational behavior and human resources (HR). Decades of traditional research on the negative perspectives embedded within many foundational psychological theories have failed to result in a better understanding of the positive human aspects of life such as happiness, strengths, and optimal functioning (Seligman, 2002). Due to the emergence of positive psychology, researchers have refocused on employee well-being.

The field of organization development (OD) is no exception to this refocusing. The practice of OD is also in the forefront of this shift in direction, moving from traditional change methods to positive approaches such as appreciative inquiry (Cooperrider & Sekerka, 2006). According to Avey, Wernsing, and Luthans (2008), while much attention has been given to employees’ resistance to change through dysfunctional attitudes (e.g., organizational cynicism and disengagement) and behaviors (e.g., deviance) in traditional OD, the role of employees with positive attitudes and behaviors has been largely ignored. Most interventions of traditional OD have focused on error detection, gap analysis, and fixing problems (Cooperrider & Sekerka, 2006). Today, practitioners and researchers need processes and tools to focus more toward applications that examine what contributes to the best of organizational life—as a starting point for change. Positive organizational change is “any change that does more good than harm in and for an organization, considering aspects of employees’ psychological resources, behavior, and performance that may be affected by the change” (Avey et al., 2008, p. 50). Thus, important aspects in positive organizational change include not only organizational outcomes but also the corresponding effects on employees’ responses to change in terms of their attitudes and behaviors, including those attitudes such as employee engagement and well-being.

Engagement and psychological well-being (PWB) are two still emerging constructs in positive psychology, including the specific fields of HR and OD. Since people prefer exposure to positive energy physiologically, cognitively, emotionally, and behaviorally, they develop a natural tendency toward positive change (Cameron, 2008). The concept of well-being in the workplace is becoming an essential condition in organizations. People with higher levels of well-being learn and solve problems more effectively, relate to others more positively, are more enthusiastic about change and accept change more readily (Cartwright & Cooper, 2008). In addition, being actively engaged in work can influence a person to feel energized and generates positive feelings of well-being (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). More specifically, PWB is a complex and nuanced construct concerned with high levels of positive emotion and satisfaction with life. Empirical evidence has suggested that a preponderance of positive over negative conditions helps enable positive organizational change. Under positive conditions (e.g., positive climate, positive relationships, positive communication, positive meaning, and positive energy), heliotropic tendencies can produce positive change mitigating negative tendencies (Cameron, 2008). Positive attitudes and behaviors such as engagement and PWB may help employees cope with organizational change by broadening the options they perceive, maintaining an open approach to problem solving, and supplying energy for adjusting their behaviors to new work conditions (Baumeister, Gailliot, DeWall, & Oaten, 2006); however, little is known about these connections. Although the concept of well-being in the workplace has become an essential condition in organizations for change, PWB remains an underresearched area. The lack of attention paid to PWB in HR and OD is a critical research gap with important implications for practice.

While researchers have begun to investigate the utility of the concept of employee engagement in a global context (e.g., Shimazu, Miyanaka, & Schaufeli, 2010; Wiley, Kowske, & Herman, 2010), the concept of well-being in an Asian culture has received less attention. Comparing the conceptions and experiences of happiness among the seven Confucian societies in Asia, D. C. Shin and Inoguchi (2009) concluded that happiness means more than emotional state; it is a positive assessment of a whole life. Diener and Seligman (2004) argued the necessity of a set of national noneconomic indicators of well-being, which has become a quantitative benchmark. In the United Nations World Happiness Report (2016), South Korea ranked 58 out of 157 nations, indicating room for improvement. According to the Better Life Index, published by OECD, South Koreans are less satisfied with their lives than the OECD average, generally speaking. Although South Korea ranked above average in education and skills, personal security, jobs, and earnings, they remained well below the index average subjective well-being (SWB) and work–life balance (OECD, 2016). Notwithstanding, most measures for well-being were developed in the Western culture, and validating such measures of complex attitudinal constructs in the non-Western cultural context has tremendous value.

To accommodate these cascading gaps in the literature, this study reexamined the impact of cognitive perceptions of the work environment using a robust measure of cognitive engagement and PWB, while simultaneously taking into consideration cultural implications of a sample drawn from South Korea. Accordingly, the purpose of our work was to investigate the effect of employees’ work cognition on their PWB and to examine the role of cognitive engagement as a partial mediator of those relationships in a South Korean cultural context.

Theoretical Background and Hypotheses

Based on the bottom-up perspective (Diener, Oishi, & Lucas, 2003; Erdogan, Bauer, Truxillo, & Mansfield, 2012), the current study examines well-being in the workplace domain. More specifically, the underlying theories include processor activity-based theories such as flow proposed by Csikszentmihalyi (1990). This theory views well-being as a by-product of being immersed or cognitively engaged in meaningful activities (Erdogan et al., 2012). In the following, the concepts of work cognition, employee engagement, and PWB as well as the relationships among these constructs are reviewed. Four hypotheses are proposed, based on a literature review.

Work Cognition

Employees’ work cognition involves the development of thought patterns or schema that have the features, aspects, feelings, and ideas associated with past and present work experience (James & James, 1989; Parkinson, 1997, 2007). Thus, work cognition is made up of an accumulation of mental descriptions and past judgments and are brought to bear on a given work experience in the present. Employee appraisals of their work experience involve both cognitive (or rational) and affective (or emotional) judgments and decision-making processes simultaneously (Bagozzi, 1992; Fugate, Harrison, & Kinicki, 2011; Lazarus, 1991). The appraisal process is congruent with many of the findings, dividing engagement into a cognitive component, an affective component, and a behavioral component (e.g., Macey & Schneider, 2008; Rich, LePine, & Crawford, 2010; Shuck, Ghosh, Zigarmi, & Nimon, 2013; Shuck & Wollard, 2010; Zigarmi, Nimon, Houson, Witt, & Diehl, 2009).

In an effort to distinguish between what employees think about their work and what they feel about their work, Zigarmi et al. (2009, 2011) called for the separation of the cognitive and affective aspects of the appraisal by making clear distinctions in the way both affect and cognition are conceptualized and measured. Based on a review of 17 meta-analyses incorporating over 2,300 studies, the measurement of rational cognitions by constructing an instrument titled the Work Cognition Inventory (WCI) was developed and validated (Nimon, Zigarmi, Houson, Witt, & Diehl, 2011). The selection of possible antecedent work cognitions was carefully curated and established based on the magnitude of correlations, frequency of occurrence, and number of related outcome variables as reported in their respective research streams (Nimon et al., 2011).

The eight factors of work cognition include the following: meaningful work, autonomy, feedback, connectedness with colleagues, connectedness with leader, collaboration, distributive fairness, and growth. To begin with job-related factors, meaningful work refers to the extent to which individuals perceive that the activities they engage in at the job level are important to others both inside and outside the organization (Pava, 1999; Shamir, 1991). Job autonomy involves the use of this judgment in the interpretation of the company’s expectations for their job content and working approaches to complete their job tasks (Campion, 1988). Feedback is the extent to which individuals perceive that they have access to accurate information concerning their job performance from various sources (Hackman & Oldham, 1975).

Next, relational factors include connectedness with leader and colleagues and also collaboration. Connectedness with leader refers to the extent to which individuals perceive a supportive and noncontrolling relationship with their leader, characterized by perceptions of interpersonal fairness, and psychological safety (Eby, Freeman, Rush, & Lance, 1999). Connectedness with colleagues is related to the general work environment as well as to the interpersonal dynamics of the work experience. Collaboration is the extent to which an individual perceives that cooperation-based teamwork is more important than competition among individuals within a work unit or across work units within the same organization (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000).

Last, the two organizational factors include distributive fairness and growth. Distributive fairness refers to the extent to which individuals perceive that there is an equal input to output ratio, effort to reward (Colquitt, Conlon, Wesson, Porter, & Ng, 2001). According to equity theory, the individual compares the ratio of his or her contribution or input to outcome with the ratio of others not only in their organization but also in other organizations. Growth is referred to as the extent to which an individual perceives that the organizational work environment fosters expectations of learning, job growth, and career movement (Watkins & Marsick, 2003).

Employee Engagement

The still emerging construct of engagement is a multidimensional, motivational construct with subdimensions serving as primary indicators of a latent higher order construct (Law, Wong, & Mobley, 1998; Rich et al., 2010; Shuck, Zigarmi, & Owen, 2015). Kahn (1990) first conceptualized the notion of personal engagement, defining it as “the simultaneous employment and expression of a person’s ‘preferred self’ in task behaviors that promote connections to work and to others, personal presence (physical, cognitive, and emotional) and active, full performances” (p. 700). Employee engagement refers to a high level of connection to both job and organization (Saks, 2006) and is defined as an active, work-related positive psychological state (Nimon, Shuck, & Zigarmi, 2016; Parker & Griffin, 2011).

Subsequent to Kahn’s work, several researchers provided empirical evidence of a relationship between employee engagement and positive organizational outcomes such as organizational and financial accomplishment (e.g., Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002; Salanova, Agut, & Peiro, 2005); lower turnover intention (Harter et al., 2002); lower absenteeism and shrinkage (Harter, Schmidt, Killham, & Asplund, 2006); more in-role and extrarole behavior (Schaufeli, Taris, & Bakker, 2006); and higher organizational commitment (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004), among others. Consequently, the evidence of a relation between higher levels of engagement and performance is coming into focus.

As antecedents to engagement, Kahn (1990, 1992) suggested that the work context, coupled with employee perceptions of their work environment, influences the overall conditions of engagement. Perception, however, is subjective, and scholarly attempts to broadly define subjectivity are fraught with challenge. Still, engaged employees are described as being psychologically present, attentive, connected, integrated, and focused in their role performances (Rich et al., 2010). Engaged employees are open to themselves and others, connected to their work and colleagues, and bring their complete selves to their daily work (Kahn, 1992). In the leadership and organizational development literature, scholars have more recently suggested that the phenomenon of employee engagement unfolds in three distinct, interrelated dimensions: cognitive engagement, emotional engagement, and behavioral engagement (cf. Shuck, Twyford, Reio, & Shuck, 2014). Within these three interrelated dimensions, cognitive engagement is thought to develop as a primary function in the process of becoming engaged, stemming from an employee’s rational and unique experience and perspective of his or her work—similar to those dimensions captured within the work cognitions (Nimon et al., 2011).

This study explored the empirical connection between work cognition, cognitive function of employee engagement (i.e., cognitive engagement), and PWB. Nimon and Zigarmi (2015) suggested that researchers who seek to clearly understand the cognitive aspects of what employees think about their work experiences should take care to separate emotions from cognitions, which could be outcomes of cognitive conclusions. Recent research based on manifest validity using latent semantic analysis techniques has shown that concept blurring occurs between measures of satisfaction and some measures of engagement (Nimon et al., 2016). This semantic equivalency could lead to concept blurring and inflated correlations between dependent and independent variables if measures are semantically similar—such as the potential relation between cognitive and emotive subdimensions of employee engagement. Thus, taking into consideration the issue of concept overlap reliably noted in the engagement literature (e.g., Jaussi, 2007; Newman, Joseph, Sparkman, & Carpenter, 2011; Shuck et al., 2013; Wefald & Downey, 2009), this study was limited to measures of cognitive engagement. Also, because work cognition was uniquely designed to assess cognitive perceptions of the work experience (vs. more emotionally laden affective perceptions), we chose to focus this work explicitly on the phenomenon of cognitive engagement as a potential connection point between those cognitions that drive an experience and the formulation of the experience itself, a link that appears to be underrepresented in the literature.

Psychological Well-Being

SWB, the predominant approach to studying well-being, has historically been made up of two general components: life satisfaction and affective balance (Andrews & Withey, 1976; Campbell, Converse, & Rodgers, 1976; Diener, 1984). Characteristic of traditional Western philosophies and religions, a normative understanding of well-being has defined what human characteristics and qualities are desirable and worthy of pursuit (Christopher, 1999). These norms are largely provided by notions of PWB (Christopher, 1999). Brodsky (1988) characterized PWB as (a) subjective and emotional, (b) contextual, (c) developable and improvable based on personal endeavors, and (d) moving in a positive direction. Several antecedents of PWB include work environment, career paths, physical health, and a low level of stress (Brodsky, 1988).

Synthesizing previous seminal theories and based on a hermeneutic approach, Ryff (1989) developed a second-order structure of PWB that included six unique dimensions: self-acceptance, positive relations, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth. Ryff’s (1989) PWB model is an alternative, competing notion to the prevailing SWB perspective. According to Ryff (1989), self-acceptance refers to positive attitudes toward oneself, a central characteristic of positive psychological functioning. Positive relations with others concerns warm, trusting interpersonal relations, and strong feelings of empathy and affection. Environmental mastery is defined as “the ability to choose or create environments suitable to his or her psychic conditions” (Ryff, 1989, p. 1071). Purpose in life refers to an awareness of life’s purpose, a sense of direction, and intentionality in life. Personal growth is defined as the ability to continually develop one’s potential competence and thus grow as a person. Last, autonomy is regarded as including attributes such as self-determination, independence, internal locus of control, individuation, and internal regulation of behavior.

The theories and research on PWB are substantively based on Western individualistic moral visions of the good or ideal person (Christopher, 1999). As such, we excluded autonomy in this study because it does not fit with South Korean culture, which is characterized as collectivistic and high-power distance (Hofstede, 1980). More information regarding this decision is discussed in additional detail later in the measures section.

Hypotheses

Work Cognition and PWB

As a broad construct of the experience of work, the notion of work cognition is believed to assess those general, broad-based aspects of the workplace experience that positively affect employee engagement, which leads to a positive state of well-being based on cognitive and affective appraisals of job and organizational situations (Zigarmi et al., 2009). Thus, cognitive assessments of job and organizational situations are believed to have a positive influence on employee well-being. Due to the relatively new and emergent nature of research concerning work cognitions as well as the lack of a parallel measure for employee well-being, no empirical study has attempted to test this specific relationship. Therefore, we used theory grounded in the work of Zigarmi et al. (2009, 2011) and Ryff (1989) from which to base our hypothesis.

Ryff’s PWB Scale (Ryff & Keyes, 1995) includes multiple dimensions. Employees with high-PWB scores tend to be satisfied with their self-image, have a good relationship with people around them, control themselves in their work and life, and have strong life purpose and sense of growth. According to the Better Life Index (OECD, 2016), one of the constructs with low scores for South Korean employees was work–life balance. Finding a suitable balance between work and life is a challenge for all workers, especially for South Korean employees who are known for long work hours. Therefore, their satisfaction in the workplace will likely account for their life satisfaction. Psychological empowerment is regarded as a good indicator for job satisfaction. Recently, Joo et al. (2016) reported that the level of South Korean employees’ psychological empowerment turned out to partially mediate the relationship between learning goal orientation and PWB, while fully mediating the relationship between empowering leadership and PWB. In their integrative literature review of life satisfaction, Erdogan et al. (2012) also suggested challenge, growth, and meaning as predictors of well-being. In sum, it is likely that employees’ overall perception of PWB will be higher when they are satisfied with their job and relationships with their colleagues and leader, and when they perceive fairness in their rewards and developmental opportunities in the workplace.

Hypothesis 1: Employee work cognition will be positively related to individual PWB.

Work Cognition and Cognitive Engagement

Grounded conceptually in Kahn’s (1990) understanding of the psychological phenomenon of engagement, cognitive engagement is interpreted through multiples lenses of work, including those of meaningfulness, safety, and resources (Kahn, 1990; Rich et al., 2010). Cognitively engaged employees tend to be mentally vigilant, focused, and absorbed in their work (Kahn, 1990).

The change of organizational and contextual factors is both critical for managers in terms of effective implementation and for employees in terms of acceptance and engagement (Avey et al., 2008). Notwithstanding a lack of specific empirical evidence of the effect of work cognition on the cognitive engagement, the dimensions of the work environment (e.g., job characteristics, the role of leadership and coworkers, organizational support or HR practices) have frequently been examined as antecedents of job satisfaction and organizational commitment as well as employee engagement. Employees will be cognitively engaged when they perceive meaning in their work, feedback, and job autonomy; when they have a collaborative culture and a good relationship with their boss and colleagues; and when they feel fairness in HR practices, such as rewards and career development. Thus, we believed that an employee’s work environment cognitions would be positively related to cognitive engagement.

Hypothesis 2: Employee work environment cognitions will be positively related to cognitive engagement.

Cognitive Engagement and PWB

Being actively engaged in the job can make a person feel energized and generates positive feelings of well-being (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Although employee engagement and PWB are currently of interest to many researchers as well as practitioners, little research has considered them together. Robertson and Cooper (2010) suggested a broader concept, the full engagement model, adding employee well-being to the traditional commitment/citizenship model of engagement. Schaufeli, Taris, and van Rhenen (2008) considered work engagement as a component of well-being along with burnout and workaholism. In this study, however, we regard them as distinct.

The more employees are engaged cognitively in their job, the higher the overall perception of PWB will be. More specifically, employees are likely to have better self-image, have better relationships with people around them, control themselves in their work and life, and have strong life purpose and sense of growth. Although there were no previous empirical studies from which to ground our assumptions, which were centered in distinct streams of research for each construct of interest, we hypothesized that a clear linkage would exist between cognitive engagement and PWB.

Hypothesis 3: Cognitive engagement will be positively related to individual PWB.

Mediating Role of Cognitive Engagement

To fully understand how work cognition relates to the PWB of employees, we believed cognitive engagement would play a role as a mediator. Recently, Joo and Lee (in press) reported that the relationship between overall work engagement and SWB was fully mediated by career satisfaction. That is, the more engaged in their job, the more satisfied with their career, and resultantly, the more SWB employees would experience in their life. However, to date, no study has attempted to investigate the effect of cognitive engagement in the relationship between work environment and PWB. Based on the previous discussion, we proposed a partial mediation model of cognitive engagement along with a direct relationship between each dimension of perceived work cognition and PWB.

Hypothesis 4: Employee work cognition will have a partial indirect effect on individual PWB through cognitive engagement.

Method

In this section, we discuss the methodological issues. First, the sample and data collection procedures are described. Next, information about the measures is provided.

Sample and Data Collection

As part of a larger study on employee perceptions, data from a cross-sectional survey were used in this study, and a cross-sectional survey was used to obtain individual perceptions. The target population was knowledge workers in large for-profit South Korean organizations. We selected one of the largest conglomerates in South Korea, which is made up of multiple subsidiaries including a Fortune Global 100 company. The participants were junior and middle managers who would participate in one of the training programs in the corporate university. With the help of an HRD director, an online survey was distributed to 820 employees via e-mail, and 518 were returned, giving us a final response rate of 63%. The sample in this study included 235 employees at four companies in the financial industry, 200 at two companies in manufacturing, and 83 at two companies in trading and engineering.

The demographic variables included (a) gender, (b) age, (c) education level, (d) hierarchical level, (e) type of job, and (f) length of a leader–follower relationship. Among the respondents (n = 518), almost 80% were male, which indicates the masculine dominance at the managerial level in South Korean organizations. In terms of age, the majority were in their 30s (42%) and 40s (41%), whereas those in their 20s were 12%, and over 50s were only 5%. As for the educational level, 61% of the respondents had graduated from a 4-year college and 27% from graduate school. In terms of hierarchical level, 41% of the respondents were managers, 42% junior managers, and the rest were associates. The length of employment with the current employer was evenly distributed across the following categories: less than 3 years (24%), between 3 and 6 years (23%), between 6 and 9 years (15%), between 9 and 12 years (10%), and over 12 years (27%). Classification by job type was as follows: 22% in marketing and sales; 4% in production; 19% in engineering; 6% in research and development; 22% in information technology; 18% in supporting functions such as finance, HR, and legal; and 9% in others. In sum, most respondents were highly educated men in their 30s and 40s in managerial positions.

Measures

All constructs used multi-item scales that have been developed and used in the United States. For this study, the instruments were translated into Korean through the four steps of translations: forward translation, assessment, backward translation, and assessment based on the criteria of the clarity, common language, and cultural adequacy (Presser et al., 2004). More specifically, the first author of this article, who speaks English and Korean, translated the original instruments into Korean. Then, another bilingual professor translated the Korean version into English, and two third-party professors in the United States compared the result with the original version. The survey questionnaire included a 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Work Cognition

We used the WCI (Nimon et al., 2011) to assess the eight cognitive aspects of the workplace experience: meaningful work, autonomy, feedback, connectedness with colleagues, connectedness with leader, collaboration, distributive fairness, and growth. Each scale contains five items, and sample items include the following: “I believe I am working on projects that matter” (meaningful work); “I have the ability to choose how tasks are performed” (autonomy); “I receive enough feedback on my job performance to know how well I am doing” (feedback); “My colleagues share personal information with me” (connectedness with colleagues); “My boss shares personal information with me” (connectedness with leader); “People share professional ideas with me” (collaboration); “This organization makes an effort to fairly and appropriately balance my workload” (distributive fairness); “This organization finds ways to support my future career planning” (growth). Across the eight measures, coefficient alpha ranged from .86 to .92.

Cognitive Engagement

Cognitive engagement appears to be developed first from an employee’s rational and unique perspective of his or her work. Grounded conceptually in Kahn’s (1990) understanding of the psychological phenomenon of engagement, cognitive engagement is interpreted through the lens of work that is safe (not only physically but also emotionally and psychologically) and meaningful, and whether employees have available resources to get their work done (Kahn, 1990; Rich et al., 2010). We used the six-item cognitive engagement scale from Rich et al. (2010). A sample item includes “At work, I am absorbed by my job.” The coefficient alpha in this study was .90.

Psychological Well-Being

To measure PWB, we used the PWB Scale (Ryff & Keyes, 1995). We used 18 items to assess six dimensions of PWB: (a) self-acceptance, (b) positive relations, (c) autonomy, (d) environmental mastery, (e) purpose in life, and (f) personal growth. Sample items include the following: “When I look at the story of my life, I am pleased with how things have turned out” (self-acceptance); “I have experienced many warm and trusting relationships with others” (positive relations); “In general, I feel I am in charge of the situation in which I live” (environmental mastery); “I sometimes feel as if I have done all there is to do in life” (purpose in life); “For me, life has been a continuous process of learning, changing, and growth” (personal growth). Ryff and Keyes (1995) reported that the shortened 3 items correlated from .70 to .89 with the original 20 items for each dimension.

In the current study, we found that internal reliabilities ranged from .74 to .77, except for autonomy (α = .49). As a result of the confirmative factor analysis, the factor loadings were low (.45-.61) as well. Thus, we dropped three items of autonomy. A sample item includes “I have confidence in my opinions, even if they are contrary to the general consensus.” Autonomy emphasizes individuality, whereas South Korean culture is characterized by collectivism and high-power distance, among others (Hofstede, 1980). As in other East Asian cultures, South Korean employees tend to highly value harmony and building good relationships when interacting with others (Joo, Yang, & McLean, 2014; S. J. Shin & Zhou, 2007). In such a culture, judging by the values of what others think can be more important than what one thinks is important. Thus, we concluded that the autonomy items from Ryff and Keyes (1995) were not appropriate for South Korean culture.

Results

The results of the study are reported in three parts. First, the measurement model is presented. Second, descriptive statistics are reported, and last, the results of structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis are presented.

Measurement Model

To check for possible common method bias, we first conducted Harman’s single-factor test as described in Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, and Podsakoff (2003). They determined that a common method bias exists if the exploratory factor analysis result presents only one factor or a dominant single factor, thus explaining much of the covariances of independent and dependent variables. The exploratory factor analysis based on a maximum likelihood estimation showed 11 factors with eigenvalues greater than 1, and the first factor explained about 36% of the covariance of the variables. Because we found no dominant factor explaining the covariance among independent and dependent variables in the sample, we concluded that the sample used in this study was not seriously tainted by common method bias.

An overall confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed to assess the construct validity of the measurement model. The primary purpose of a model fit assessment is to determine how the model as a whole is consistent with the empirical data. The goodness-of-fit indices used in this study include chi-square (χ²), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and root mean square residual (RMR). As a result of an overall CFA, the measurement model indicated an acceptable fit to the data (χ²[1,753] = 4,661; p = .00; χ²/df = 2.54; RMSEA = .057; RMR = .036). All the factor loadings were above .50. The results of the CFA offered further validity for the instruments and model in a South Korean cultural setting.

Descriptive Statistics, Correlations, and Reliabilities

Table 1 presents the correlations among the demographic variables and the three constructs. It also reports descriptive statistics and the reliabilities. All the correlations indicated significant (p < .01) and moderate relationships among the constructs (r = .46-.60). All measures demonstrated excellent levels of reliability (α = .81-.92). Regarding the effects of demographic variables, the older workers who were in higher hierarchical levels tended to respond positively to all the constructs. Male employees positively perceived the work environment. However, educational level had no effect on the three constructs in this study.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics, Correlations, and Reliabilities (n = 518).

	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1. Gender	1.80	0.40	—
2. Age	2.39	0.75	.31**	—
3. Education	3.10	0.74	−.06	−.02	—
4. Hierarchical level	2.76	0.72	.23**	.82**	.14**	—
5. Perceived work cognition	3.70	0.51	.16**	.25**	−.03	.23**	(.92)
6. Cognitive engagement	4.09	0.48	.01	.14**	−.04	.14**	.52**	(.90)
7. Psychological well-being	3.83	0.44	.07	.09*	.04	.10*	.60**	.46**	(.81)

Note. Pearson correlation coefficient. Alpha reliability estimates are presented on the diagonal.

p < .05. **p < .01.

As the result of correlation analysis, the first three hypotheses were supported in this study. Perceived work cognition was found to be significantly associated with cognitive engagement (Hypothesis 1) and PWB (Hypothesis 2). In addition, cognitive engagement was significantly related to PWB (Hypothesis 3). In terms of effect size, work cognition factors generally indicated stronger correlation coefficients with PWB than did cognitive engagement.

Structural Model Assessment

We used SEM analysis to test the hypotheses of this study. This was to determine whether the theoretical relationships specified at the conceptualization stage were supported by the data. Figure 1 illustrates the strengths of the paths among the constructs, showing path coefficients and the overall model fit of the hypothesized structural model. The hypothesized model indicated an acceptable fit in all indices. All the path coefficients turned out to be significant (t > 1.96; p < .05). Effect decomposition analyses indicated that the indirect effect of perceived work cognition (.11) was significant, which supported the mediating role of cognitive engagement (Hypothesis 4).

Figure 1.

Structural model.

Overall, perceived work cognition explained 31% and 47% of variance in cognitive engagement and PWB, respectively. Together, perceived work cognition and cognitive engagement accounted for 50% of the variance in employee PWB, with cognitive engagement contributing little unique variance (see Table 2). Virtually all the variance that cognitive engagement (R² = 27%) had in common with employee PWB was mediated by work cognition (R²_med = 23%). The unique effect of cognitive engagement on well-being was only 3%.

Table 2.

Decomposition of Explained Variance in Psychological Well-Being.

Component	R ²	Total (%)
Unique to work cognition	.23	46.04
Unique to cognitive engagement	.03	5.62
Common to cognitive engagement and work cognition	.24	48.34
Total	.50

Discussion

The major findings of this study and implications for the fields of HR and OD are discussed. Limitations of the current study and recommendations for future research along with brief conclusions bring this work to a close.

Research Findings

The major finding of this study is that employee work cognition had a positive relationship with cognitive engagement and PWB in a South Korean conglomerate. Employees reported higher levels of cognitive engagement when they also perceived positive cognition within their work environment (R² = .31). While few studies have examined the specific effect of employee work cognition on engagement, the results are consistent with previous studies on job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and intrinsic motivation, which are believed to be constructs related to engagement. More specifically, employees turned out to be cognitively more engaged when they perceived higher levels of meaning in their work, feedback, and job autonomy; when they had a positive relationship with their leader and colleagues; and when they perceived fairness in rewards and growth opportunity in the organization.

Moreover, work cognition and cognitive engagement positively influenced the level of PWB (R² = .50). Employees tended to be higher in their PWB when they perceived higher levels of meaning of work, job autonomy, a good relationship with colleagues as well as their leader, and distributive fairness and growth opportunity in the organization. This is a remarkable finding considering the role of work and its association with a person’s overall sense of PWB.

Finally, cognitive engagement modestly and partially mediated the relationship between work cognition and PWB. As shown in the results of effect decomposition analyses (see Table 2), the indirect effect of perceived work cognition was significant. Thus, work cognition had a positive direct effect on both cognitive engagement and PWB. The direct effect of cognitive engagement on PWB was significant but relatively weaker than work cognition. Thus, the indirect effect was modest.

Theoretical Contributions

Despite an increasing number of studies on engagement, previous research on employee attitudes, and behaviors in the work domain has been sparsely focused on PWB. In their meta-analysis study, Erdogan et al. (2012) argued that the management literature has largely ignored the concept of life satisfaction, and the life satisfaction literature has also ignored the work domain. More specifically, out of 1,166 articles mentioning job satisfaction in the abstracts of six major management and industrial/organizational psychology journals, only 4% examined life satisfaction (Erdogan et al., 2012). Out of the 6,160 journal articles that mentioned life satisfaction, only 3% investigated working adults and studied work-related (vs. personality) variables (Erdogan et al., 2012). This focus on nonwork populations is striking because more than 65% of the population in OECD countries are employed and those who start working at age 21 and retire at 65 years will have spent more than 90,000 hours working (Erdogan et al., 2012). That is, although adults spend a majority of their adult lifetime working, most well-being research comes from studies of nonworking populations. To fill this research gap, by integrating the three emerging constructs in positive organizational psychology, we examined work cognition as a potential antecedent to engagement and well-being in the workplace. It is hoped that this study adds a building block to workplace well-being research.

Bowling, Eschleman, and Wang (2010) reported in their meta-analytic study that the average observed correlation between job and life satisfaction is .40, suggesting that the effect of work domain on life satisfaction may be weak compared with nonwork domains, In the current study, the correlation between work cognition and PWB (r = .60) and the correlation between cognitive engagement and PWB (r = .46) were relatively strong. We believe the reasons for the stronger effect sizes can be found in the fact that work cognition can account for more extensive factors that can affect PWB than job satisfaction. More specifically, work cognition is a second-order construct encompassing not only the work domain (i.e., meaningful work, job autonomy, and feedback) but also nonwork domains such as relationship (i.e., collaboration and connectedness with leader and colleagues) and supportive organizational environment (i.e., distributive fairness and growth). Situating our findings within the broader research literature, little work has examined the role of work cognition on engagement and well-being. In this study, we found that South Korean employees were cognitively engaged when they perceived high levels of meaning and autonomy in their job, when they had positive relations with coworkers, and when they found growth opportunities in the workplace. Furthermore, we also found that employees perceived a high level of PWB when they had a high level of autonomy and meaning in their job, good relationships with coworkers as well as their leader, and fair reward and growth opportunity.

In addition, this was an international study grounded in an East Asian cultural context in general, with a South Korean context in particular. Although there has been increasing attention on engagement for South Korean employees, so far, little empirical research on employee well-being could be found, especially in a South Korean context. Since all the measures in this study were developed in the United States, our study expanded the scope of study into a cross-cultural setting. This study empirically confirmed the significance of PWB as well as work cognition dimensions in the South Korean cultural setting. As discussed earlier, however, autonomy in PWB turned out to be inappropriate for use in a South Korean cultural setting.

In line with the above, this study is one of the first empirical studies using the WCI, especially in a South Korean cultural context. As a result of a separate CFA, the measurement model of the WCI indicated an acceptable fit to the data (χ²[712] = 3,168; p = .00; RMSEA = .082; RMR = .038; nonnormed fit index = .93; comparative fit index = .94). All the factor loadings were above .50. We found no cultural issue in using the WCI in the South Korean organizational setting. Thus, one of the contributions of this study is the successful validation of the WCI instrument in South Korea. Due to the relatively new and emergent nature of research concerning work cognitions, no empirical study has attempted to test its effect on employee engagement and PWB.

Last, we need to discuss the potential effect of national culture and/or organizational contextual factors on PWB. Subjective assessments of one’s own conditions of life relative to others are the most powerful influence on self-assessments of happiness (Diener, 2000). In this regard, Confucian Asia is more alike, rather than different from, all other regions of the world (D. C. Shin & Inoguchi, 2009). Based on the extant literature on life satisfaction and well-being, there appear to be several general consensuses. First, people in East Asian countries sharing Confucian values tend to be low in life satisfaction. In their cross-cultural study using college students from 41 societies, Diener, Napa-Scollon, Oishi, Dzokoto, and Suh (2000) reported that Asian societies including South Korea, China, and Japan tend to report relatively low satisfaction. In the recent OECD (2016) report, East Asian countries also tend to be less satisfied with their lives than the OECD average. Previous research had indicated that individuals in collectivistic nations reported lower levels of SWB and life satisfaction than those in individualistic nations (Diener et al., 2003; Erdogan et al., 2012). Those in individualistic nations have greater freedoms, so they can pursue their own interests (Schimmack, Oishi, & Diener, 2005). However, Oishi (2006) argued that American and Chinese respondents may base judgments of life satisfaction on different criteria, or that Chinese individuals may be more self-critical. Judge and Kammeyer-Mueller (2011) also questioned whether individuals in nations characterized as collectivistic are truly less happy, or they simply report being less happy. More studies need to be followed.

However, we conclude that, in the current study, organizational features have a stronger effect on PWB than national culture does. First, in South Korea, those who had a high level of education with high-income levels tended to feel happy about their lives (D. C. Shin & Inoguchi, 2009). Education matters most in South Korea, where the college-educated are nearly twice as likely to live a happy life. In South Korea, happiness is more than 20% higher among high-income people than among low-income people (D. C. Shin & Inoguchi, 2009). Moreover, the respondents in this study—all working for highly reputable firms in South Korea—perceived high levels of satisfaction, not only in their levels of work cognition (ranging from 3.55 to 3.88) but also in PWB, of which the mean score was 3.83. It is high, considering the 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from 0 to 5. In addition to national culture and contexts, we also needed to take organizational characteristics into consideration. Since the participant companies were regarded as employers of choice, all of which had positive corporate reputations and better HR practices, participants in this study are unlikely to find comparable or better employment in the South Korean labor market.

In sum, the results of this study could be a significant building block for understanding and expanding work cognition, engagement, and PWB in various cross-cultural settings, especially within a South Korean organizational context.

Practical Implications

We note that the one of the roles of HR/OD professionals is to provide a positive working environment. This condition is preferred because it provides heliotropic positive energy, which is self-fulfilling. That is, human systems, like biological systems, possess inherent inclinations toward the positive and thus toward positive change (Cameron, 2008). Positive approaches enhance employee engagement and well-being, and the results of our study provide evidence toward that conclusion.

HR/OD professionals can support employee engagement and well-being by developing, improving, and delivering relevant practices. First, job design has long been considered an important contributor to employees’ individual motivation, attitudes, and creative performance at work (Amabile, 1988; Hackman & Oldham, 1980). The traditional job characteristics model consists of five factors: variety, identity, significance, autonomy, and feedback (Hackman & Oldham, 1980; Oldham & Cummings, 1996). The current study included three of those factors (i.e., meaningful work, autonomy, and feedback) and highlighted their importance. A meta-analysis of the job design literature concluded that employees working on complex and challenging jobs had higher job satisfaction, internal motivation, and organizational commitment than did employees working at relatively simple jobs (Fried & Ferris, 1987). Thus, job design is a potential tool that could influence positive levels of employee engagement and PWB.

Second, with regard to the relational factors, relations with coworkers as well as with their supervisors appear to be important for engagement and well-being. Connectedness with colleagues is a mutually expressed concern for the welfare of each other and the willingness to make future emotional investments in relationships (James & James, 1989). This factor of coworker interactions fosters a sense of belonging, social identity, and meaning. In addition, the relationship with the leader is an important factor. Over time, leadership roles have changed, with the traditional hierarchical leader becoming more supportive and noncontrolling. Supportive and empowering leaders can enhance the level of employee engagement and well-being (Joo et al., 2016). Supportive leadership is an employee’s perception of his or her leaders and their degree of demonstrating consideration, a participative decision-making style, and having frequent, meaningful communication. Supportive leadership, including coaching and formal mentoring, matters for the engagement, and well-being of employees. Thus, managers and HR/OD practitioners should attempt to increase their support in the work environment.

Last, distributive fairness and growth opportunity are significant predictors, not only for cognitive engagement but also for PWB. According to Joo and McLean (2006), the best employers on the list of “Fortune’s 100 Best Companies to Work for in America” have engaged employees. Among the key features of these companies are better than average organizational culture and HR practices. Distributive fairness and growth opportunity represent HR practices. Based on equity theory, the more compensation is equitable internally and externally, the more likely employees will be satisfied. Distributive fairness has been empirically associated with organizational commitment (Colquitt et al., 2001), job satisfaction (Eby et al., 1999; Griffeth et al., 2000), and trust in authority (Colquitt et al., 2001). Another critical factor for engagement and PWB is to provide growth opportunity. Growth is usually supported within organizations through a systematic emphasis on job skills training; career development; sponsorship of technical training, coaching, and mentoring programs; corporate universities; and outside higher education degree attainment programs. The presence of such developmental opportunities allows employees to understand their organization’s emphasis toward growth (Griffeth et al., 2000). In sum, the development of an organizational culture that is open and trusting and that fosters a climate in which collaboration among units takes place is vital for promoting employee engagement and, eventually, well-being. Such a culture is based on the effective operation of performance management, a compensation system, and developmental opportunity.

Limitations and Future Research

In terms of methodology, first this empirical study confined itself to a cross-sectional survey method with common method bias that could leave room for speculation with regard to causality among the variables. In particular, the directionality between job engagement and PWB is inconclusive. That is, it is not clear whether engagement affects well-being or the other way around. Although SEM is often used to investigate causal relationships, we employed this analytical technique because it is a practical, feasible way to examine associations among the constructs in this study. Therefore, it is noted that this analytical technique is not to suggest that we consider the causal relationships. For causality to be fully established, it is recommended that future studies be based on longitudinal studies with comparison groups.

Another limitation is that the sample is predominantly made up of highly educated, middle-aged, experienced, male managers in a large conglomerate in South Korea. This homogeneous sample is likely restricted to a certain group with similar demographic characteristics. The range restriction could have reduced the size of the correlations among the variables in this study. Thus, to increase the generalizability of the results, future research should include more heterogeneous samples, with samples from differing educational backgrounds from various types of organizations in a number of countries.

Finally, engagement and well-being may be stimulated or hindered by cultural values. The measures used in this study were originally developed within a Western context. According to Christopher (1999), “The very notion of psychological well-being is itself a Western concept” (p. 143). We had to drop autonomy, one of the six dimensions of PWB in this study, because this measure contained culturally sensitive items for South Koreans. According to Hofstede (1980), South Korean employees are likely to have less individualistic attitudes than those in Western cultures, where autonomy and individuality are emphasized. More cross-cultural studies would answer this research question. Furthermore, workplace well-being in the international context needs indigenous research that enables a type of design in which the researchers focus their attention on identifying and uncovering unique well-being enhancing or hindering factors that are embedded in a non-Western context.

Conclusion

Engaged employees are believed to be the source of sustained competitive advantages for an organization (Joo & McLean, 2006), and happy workers are believed to be good workers because they tend to be more satisfied with their work, more creative, inclined to stay longer, exhibit better in-role and extrarole performance, and earn more money (Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2008). Furthermore, happy, engaged employees are likely to be more proactive for organizational changes. Ultimately, reinforcing the positive would be the normal prescription for unleashing positive change (Cameron, 2008). Results of this study indicate that perceived work cognition positively influences employee engagement and PWB. HR/OD professionals can help organizations enhance the level of employee engagement and well-being by developing a better organizational culture and better HR practices.

Footnotes

Authors’ Note

A prior version of this article was presented at the 2015 Academy of Human Resource Development International Conference in the Americas, St. Louis, MO.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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