The authors first discuss the problem of defining leadership, suggesting three minimal criteria: (1) demonstrated personal causation, (2) observed relationships between behavior and its effects, and (3) substantive performance outcomes. The authors then stress the importance of considering environmental influences on the leadership process and suggest an idiographic approach to researching leadership under such theoretic assumptions for leadership. The rest of the article presents a demonstration study for this approach. After first obtaining qualitative data concerning the problem and the context, the authors use a single-case experimental design to analyze quantitatively the impact that a production manager had on the performance of his unit. The authors feel that this article therefore represents a significant departure from the traditional ways in which leadership has been defined and researched.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Alban Metcalfe, B. M.Leadership: Extrapolating from theory and research to practical skills training. Journal of Management Studies, 1982, 3, 295-305.
2.
Argyris, C.Problems and new directions for industrial psychology. In M. D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976.
3.
Argyris, C.How normal science methodology makes leadership research less additive and less applicable. In J. G. Hunt & L. L. Larson (Eds.), Crosscurrents in leadership. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1979.
4.
Barnard, C. I.The functions of the executive. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1938.
5.
Barrow, J. C.The variables of leadership: A review and conceptual framework. Academy of Management Review, 1977, 2, 231-251.
6.
Calder, B. J.An attribution theory of leadership. In B. M. Staw & G. R. Salancik (Eds.), New directions in organizational behavior. Chicago: St. Clair, 1977.
7.
Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W.Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 1959, 56, 81-105.
8.
Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C.Experimental and quasi-experimental design for research. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1966.
9.
Campbell, J. P.The cutting edge of leadership: An overview. In J. G. Hunt & L. L. Larson (Eds.), Leadership: The cutting edge. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1977.
10.
Campbell, J. P., Dunnette, M. D., Lawler, E. E., III, & Weick, K. E.Managerial behavior, performance and effectiveness. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970.
11.
Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T.Quasi-exper-imentation: Design and analysis issues for field settings. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1979.
12.
Cronback, L. J.Beyond the two disciplines of scientific psychology. American Psychologist, 1975, 30, 116-127.
13.
Davis, T. R. V., & Luthans, F.Leadership reexamined: A behavioral approach. Academy of Management Review, 1979, 4, 237-248.
14.
Dubin, R.Metaphors of leadership: An overview. In J. G. Hunt & L. L. Larson (Eds.), Crosscurrents in leadership. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1979.
15.
Evered, R., & Louis, M. R.Alternative perspectives in the organizational sciences: Inquiry from the inside and inquiry from the outside. Academy of Management Review, 1981, 6, 385-395.
16.
Fiedler, F. E.A theory of leadership effectiveness. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967.
17.
Fiske, D. W.Two worlds of psychological phenomena. American Psychologist, 1979, 34, 733-739.
18.
Green, S. G., & Mitchell, T. R.Attributional processes of leaders in leader-member interactions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1979, 23, 429-458.
19.
Hersen, M., & Barlow, D. H.Single case experimental designs: Strategies for studying behavior change. New York: Pergamon, 1976.
20.
Hollander, E. P.Leadership dynamics: A practical guide to effective relationships. New York: MacMillan, Free Press, 1978.
21.
Hunt, J. G., & Osborn, R. N.Toward a macrooriented model of leadership: An odyssey. In J. G. Hunt, U. Sekaran, & C. A. Schriesheim (Eds.), Leadership: Beyond establishment views. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1982.
22.
Jick, T. D.Mixing qualitative and quantitative methods: Triangulation in action. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1979, 24, 602-611.
23.
Kelley, H. H.Attribution theory in social psychology. In D. Levine (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. 15). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1967.
24.
Kerr, S., & Jermier, J. M.Substitutes for leadership: Their meaning and measurement. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1978, 22, 375-403.
25.
Kets de Vries, M. F. R.Organizational paradoxes. London: Tavistock, 1980.
26.
Komaki, J.Alternative evaluation strategies in work settings: Reversal and multiple baseline designs. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 1977, 1, 53-77.
27.
Komaki, J. L., Waddell, W. M., & Pearce, M. G.The applied behavior analysis approach and individual employees: Improving performance in two small businesses. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1977, 19, 337-352.
28.
Komaki, J. L., Collins, R. L., & Penn, P.The role of performance antecedents and consequences in work motivation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1982, 67, 334-340.
29.
Kreitner, R., Reif, W. E., & Morris, M.Measuring the impact of feedback on the performance of mental health technicians. Journal of Organization Behavior Management, 1977, 1, 105-109.
30.
Lippitt, R.The changing leader-follower relationships of the 1980s. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 1982, 18, 395-403.
31.
Lombardo, M. M.Looking at leadership: Some neglected issues. Greensboro, N. C.: Center for Creative Leadership, 1978.
32.
Luthans, F.Leadership: A proposal for a social learning theory base and observational and functional analysis techniques to measure leader behavior. In J. Hunt and L. Larson (Eds.), Cross currents in leadership. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1979.
33.
Luthans, F., & Davis, T. R. V.An idiographic approach to organizational behavior research: The use of single case experimental designs and direct measures. Academy of Management Review, 1982, 7, 380-391.
34.
Luthans, F., & Maris, T.Evaluating personnel programs through the reversal technique. Personnel Journal, 1979, 58, 692-697.
35.
Manz, C. C., & Sims, H. P.Self management as a substitute for leadership: A social learning theory perspective. Academy of Management Review, 1980, 5, 361-367.
36.
McCall, M. W., Jr.Leaders and leadership: Of substance and shadow. In J. R. Hackman, E. E. Lawler, III, & L. W. Porter (Eds.), Perspectives on behavior in organizations. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1977.
37.
McCall, M. W., Jr., & Lombardo, M. M.Where else can we go? In M. W. McCall, Jr., & M. M. Lombardo (Eds.), Where else can we go?Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1978.
38.
McElroy, J. C.A typology of attribution leadership research. Academy of Management Review, 1982, 7, 413-417.
39.
Miner, J. B.The uncertain future of the leadership concept: An overview. In J. G. Hunt & L. L. Larson (Eds.), Leadership frontiers. Kent, Ohio: Comparative Administration Research Institute, Kent State University, 1975.
40.
Miner, J. B.A note on theory and research for developing a science of leadership. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 1982, 18, 536-538. (a)
41.
Miner, J. B.The uncertain future of the leadership concept: Revisions and clarifications. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 1982, 18, 293-307. (b)
42.
Mintzberg, H.The nature of managerial work. New York: Harper & Row, 1973.
43.
Mintzberg, H.If you're not serving Bill and Barbara, then you're not serving leadership. In J. G. Hunt, U. Sekaran, & C. A. Schriesheim (Eds.), Leadership: Beyond establishment views. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1982.
44.
Mischel, W.On the interface of cognition and personality: Beyond the person-situation debate. American Psychologist, 1979, 34, 740-754.
45.
Mitchell, T. R., Larson, J. R., & Green, S. G.Leader behavior, situational moderators, and group performance: An attributional analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1977, 18, 254-268.
46.
Mitroff, I. I., & Pondy, L. R.Afterthoughts on the leadership conference. In M. W. McCall & M. M. Lombardo (Eds.), Leadership: Where else can we go?Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press, 1978.
47.
Nixon, R. M.Leaders. New York: Warner, 1982.
48.
Olmstead, J. A.Leader performance as organizational process: A study of organizational competence. In J. G. Hunt & L. L. Larson (Eds.), Contingency approaches to leadership. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1974.
49.
Osborn, R. N., & Hunt, J. G.An adaptive-reactive theory of leadership: The role of macro variables in leadership research. In J. G. Hunt & L. L. Larson (Eds.), Leadership frontiers. Kent, Ohio: The Comparative Administration Research Institute, Kent State University Press, 1975.
50.
Parsonson, B. S., & Baer, D. M.The analysis and presentation of graphic data. In T. Kratochwill (Ed.), Single subject research: Strategies for evaluating change. New York: Academic Press, 1978.
51.
Peters, T. J.Leadership: Sad facts and silver linings. Harvard Business Review, 1979, 5, 164-172.
52.
Pfeffer, J.The ambiguity of leadership. Academy of Management Review, 1977, 2, 104-112.
53.
Pfeffer, J., & Salancik, G. R.The external control of organizations: A resource dependence perspective. New York: Harper & Row, 1978.
54.
Phillips, J. S., & Lord, R. G.Causal attributions and perceptions of leadership. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1981, 28, 143-163.
55.
Pondy, L. R.Leadership is a language game. In M. W. McCall & M. M. Lombardo (Eds.), Leadership: Where else can we go?Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press, 1978.
56.
Porter, L. W.A symposium on leadership: Introduction. In J. R. Hackman, E. E. Lawler, III, & L. W. Porter (Eds.), Perspectives on behavior in organizations. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1977.
57.
Sayles, L. R.Leadership. New York: McGrawHill, 1979.
58.
Stewart, R.Contrasts in management. London: McGraw-Hill, 1976.
59.
Stewart, R.Managers and their jobs. London: MacMillan, 1977.
60.
Stewart, R.Choices for the manager: A guide to understanding managerial work and behavior. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1982.
61.
Stogdill, R. M.Handbook of leadership: A survey of theory and research. New York: MacMillan, Free Press, 1974.
62.
Stogdill, R. M.Manualfor the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire, Form XII. Columbus: Ohio State University, 1963.
63.
Taylor, R. L., & Adams, G. L.A review of single-subject methodologies in applied settings. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 1982, 18, 293-307.
64.
Webb, E., & Weick, K. E.Unobtrusive measures in organization theory: A reminder. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1979, 24, 650-659.
65.
Weick, K. E.The social psychology of organizing (1st ed.). Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1969.
66.
Wortman, M. S.Strategic management and changing leader-follower roles. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 1982, 18, 371-382.
67.
Yukl, G. A.Leadership in organizations. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1981.
