Early Marriage and Correlates among Young Women in Sub-Saharan African Countries

Abstract

Though several countries have adopted the sexual violence law which criminalizes child marriage, the practice of early marriage persists in Sub-Saharan Africa. This paper examined the socio-economic and demographic determinants of early marriage among young women in four Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries, namely Niger, Democratic Republic of Congo, Mali and Malawi. Descriptive and multivariate analyses were performed to show that young women without formal education have 1.62, 1.59, 1.55 and 2.08 times more risk of early union than their secondary or higher educated counterparts. The study recommends the implementation of a universal, free and compulsory basic education in SSA countries.

Keywords

Early marriage sexual violence child marriage basic education socio-economic determinants

Introduction

Marriage remains a crucial and exceptional event in the individual’s life cycle, as well as the foundation of the family in societies where marriage is the only legal bond for the procreation of offspring (Kamal et al., 2015). The basic purposes of marriage are for procreation of children, for continuation of society, and also for fulfillment of biological needs and to develop social ties among members of society (Mibang and Behera, 2006). Consequently, age at first marriage (union) remains the most important factor related to fertility.

However, early marriage, known also as child marriage, defined as marriage under age 18 (United Nations Children’s Fund, 2001), is a practice that robs children of their childhood, imperils their health, and destroys their hopes (Brown, 2012). Marriage at early age effectively brings a girl’s childhood and adolescence to a premature and unnatural end by imposing adult roles and responsibilities before she is physically, psychologically and emotionally prepared (Karei and Erulker, 2010). Regrettably, owing to lack of freedom and information, these young girls who marry at an early age have no access to health services, which incidentally increases the risks of maternal complications and mortality (United Nations Population Fund and International Planned Parenthood Federation, 2006).

Indeed, early marriage is an old and a worldwide phenomenon. The United Nations Development Programme (2011) reported that state or customary laws allow girls younger than 18 to marry with the consent of parents or other authorities in about 146 countries. Furthermore, the report indicates that girls under age 15 can marry with parental consent in 52 of these countries. Although sexual violence laws criminalize child marriages in many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, the practice of early marriage persists. The United Nations Children’s Fund (2020) showed that between 2013 and 2019, 35% of young women aged 20–24 married before reaching their eighteenth birthday and 11% by age 15 in the region. Worldwide, child marriage is slowly declining, but remains commonplace in Sub-Saharan Africa. Statistics indicate that nine of 10 countries with the highest rates of child marriage in the world are in Sub-Saharan African. Niger has the highest child marriage prevalence rate in the world (76%) followed by the Central African Republic (68%) and Chad (67%) (United Nations Children’s Fund, 2020).

There has always been particular interest to examine different factors that influence a woman’s early age at first marriage since early marriage has been found to be a cause of numerous negative social, physical and reproductive health outcomes for adolescent women and their descendants (Godha et al., 2013; International Centre on Research on Women, 2012; Kassa et al., 2018; Khan and Mishra, 2008; Loaiza and Wong, 2012; Raj et al., 2009; United Nations Population Fund, 2012; Yakubu and Salisu, 2018). Scholars have shown that early marriage is associated with early childbearing, a repeat childbirth in less than 24 months, multiple unwanted pregnancies, a higher risk of induced abortion and higher fertility, a lack of contraceptive use (International Centre on Research on Women, 2012; Kassa et al., 2018; Raj et al., 2009; Wado et al., 2019; Yakubu and Salisu, 2018) and female sterilization (Raj et al., 2009). Moreover, early marriage denies girls their right to education, interrupts their schooling and limits their opportunities for career and vocational advancement. The persistence of child marriage will hinder Sub-Saharan Africa’s efforts to achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5, which aims to eliminate the practice by 2030.

Early pregnancy has been presented as the most evident risk of early marriage in the area of sexual and reproductive health. Equally, child marriage is identified as one of the key drivers of teenage pregnancies, especially in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa (United Nations Population Fund, 2012; World Health Organization, 2011). Girls who marry early, habitually have their experience of pregnancy and childbirth at a young age due to their higher frequency of sexual activity. Niger, which has the world’s highest adolescent birth rate, also has the highest rate of child marriage (Population Reference Bureau, 2019).

Several studies have been conducted in developing countries to examine the determinants of child marriage. It has been found that material living conditions influence the practice of early marriage. Scholars revealed that poverty plays a fundamental role in maintaining child marriage (Elengemoke et al., 2017; Kamal et al., 2015; Nour, 2006; United Nations Children’s Fund, 2001, 2005; United Nations Population Fund, 2012, 2014). In reality, the traditional practice of early marriage is most prevalent in poor, rural communities, and it often perpetuates the cycle of poverty.

Across Africa, numerous social, cultural, religious and traditional beliefs and norms are recognized to fuel the perpetuation of early marriage (Ayiga and Rampagane, 2013; Romaniuk, 2011; United Nations Children’s Fund, 2001, 2005, 2012). Ethnicity, through norms, ideas and daily practices, has an influence on variables such as education, media exposure, etc. which in turn influence the age of entry into sexual activity and attitudes towards sex. An investigation of age at first marriage in South Africa and Uganda indicated that ethnicity may influence age at marriage through age at sexual debut (Ayiga and Rampagane, 2013). Also, differences between urban and rural areas impact girls’ and young women’s status, their economic socialization and entering sexual and maternal life. Previous studies from Sub-Saharan Africa underlined that a rural environment is favourable for early marriage (Akoto et al., 2005; Kara and Maharaj, 2015).

However, Sub-Saharan Africa is not homogeneous – the variations in background and behavioural characteristics within country and across countries mean that determinants of child marriage may vary considerably. This stresses the need for a context-specific understanding of the factors that influence early marriage of adolescent women. Consequently, this paper attempts to improve understanding of the socio-economic and demographic determinants of young women’s age at first marriage in four Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries, namely Niger, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Mali and Malawi. The main objective of the study is to examine socio-economic and demographic factors associated with the early age at first marriage.

Methods

Data sources

The study used secondary data obtained from the Democratic Republic of Congo Standard Demographic and Health Survey 2013–2014 (2014), Malawi Standard Demographic and Health Survey 2015–2016 (2017), Mali Standard Demographic and Health Survey 2012–2013 (2014), and Niger Standard Demographic and Health Survey (2012). Sub-samples of young women aged 15–24; currently married, living with a partner, divorced, separated or widowed were used.

Conceptual framework

This study was based on a modified Adamchak et al.’s Model for Factors that Influence Youth Reproductive Health (Adamchak et al., 2000). It was chosen so as to explain the decision-making process of the reproductive health behaviour of adolescent women. This theory focuses on describing the important social cultural/cognitive variables and their interrelationships underlying the behaviours used in predicting reproductive health.

In Figure 1, the researchers bring together and list the most usual factors affecting young women’s reproductive behaviour from a literature review. According to this model, individual characteristics such as demographic, socio-economic and cultural and behavioural characteristics may be conceptualized as factors that mould reproductive behaviour among young women in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Figure 1.

Conceptual framework of the study (Elengemoke et al., 2017).

Demographic factors consist of variables such as the woman’s age. Socioeconomic and cultural factors concern the woman’s educational level and literacy, household wealth quintile index, woman’s employment status, exposure to media, region, place of residence, religion and ethnicity. With reference to behavioural characteristics, the variable, age at first sexual intercourse was considered.

Study setting

This study is focused on four SSA countries: Niger, Mali, DRC and Malawi.

Niger is a landlocked country in Western Africa, home to 24.2 million inhabitants, youthful with 51% under age 15 and predominantly rural (84%) (Population Reference Bureau, 2020). The population is mostly Muslim (99%) (Central Intelligence Agency, 2020). The country had a per capita income of US$ 554.6 in 2019 (World Bank, 2020) and the world’s lowest Human Development Index (HDI) (0.377) in 2018 (Conceição, 2019). With a total fertility rate (TFR) of 7.1 per woman (Population Reference Bureau, 2020) and child marriage prevalence of 76% in 2018 (United Nations Children’s Fund, 2018), Niger still exhibits the highest fertility rate and child marriage prevalence in the world. The legal minimum age of marriage for women is observed at 15. The Niger Government has implemented several initiatives and projects to promote gender equality and end child marriage in Niger. In 2018, the Niger Government has developed a multi-sector National Action Plan to end child marriage and adopted a decree for the protection of the girl-child. A law has been proposed to raise the age of marriage to 18. Similarly, Mali is a landlocked country situated in the Western Africa region with an estimated population of 20.3 million in 2020 (Population Reference Bureau, 2020). 43% of the population live in urban areas and 48% is younger than 15 (Population Reference Bureau, 2020). Mali is predominantly (94%) Muslim (Central Intelligence Agency, 2020). The gross domestic product (GDP) per capita was US$ 890.7 in 2019 (World Bank, 2020) and the HDI for 2018 was 0.427 (Conceição, 2019). The country had one of the worst TFRs at 6.3 births per woman in 2018 (Population Reference Bureau, 2020), and the child marriage prevalence stood at about 52% (United Nations Children’s Fund, 2018). The Code of Persons and the Family 2011 (Assemblée Nationale du Mali, 2011), implemented in 2018, provides 18 years as the minimum legal age for civil marriage for both women and men. In 2015, Mali launched its national campaign titled “Education for girls: a means to eliminating early child marriage”. A National Committee to coordinate and monitor the actions and commitments was formed in June 2017. The DRC, in turn, is located in the African Great Lakes region of Central Africa, and lies on the Equator. In 2020 the mid-population is estimated at 89.6 million, 45% live in urban areas, and 46% are younger than 15 years (Population Reference Bureau, 2020). Despite its wide natural resources, DRC had a nominal GDP per capita of US$ 545.2 (World Bank, 2020) and HDI of 0.459 in 2018 (Conceição, 2019). TFR improved slightly but remains high at 6.2 per woman (Population Reference Bureau, 2020), together with child marriage prevalence of 37% in 2018 (United Nations Children’s Fund, 2018). In terms of the Child Protection Code of 2009 (Journal Officiel de la République Démocratique du Congo, 2009) and the Family Code (Governement de la République Démocratique du Congo, 2016), the minimum legal age of marriage for boys and girls is 18. Legislative, institutional and policy measures have been adopted to eradicate child marriage in DRC, especially the Child Protection Code of 2009 and the Family Code of 1987 amended on 15 July 2016. Concerning Malawi, this is a landlocked country in Southern Africa, having an estimated population of 19.1 million, with around 83% living in rural areas in 2020 and 44% aged under 15 years (Population Reference Bureau, 2020). The country had a per capita income of US$ 411.6 in 2019 (World Bank, 2020), and the HDI for 2018 was 0.485 (Conceição, 2019). In 2018, the TFR was 4.2 per woman (Population Reference Bureau, 2020), along with child marriage prevalence of 42% (United Nations Children’s Fund, 2018). Under the Constitution, the minimum legal age of marriage is 18 years with no exceptions (African Child Policy Forum, 2018). Moreover, the Marriage, Divorce and Family Relations Act 2015 is protective against child marriage (Ministry of Gender, Children, Disability and Social Welfare, Malawi, 2015). The Malawi Government launched the National Children’s Policy which includes a section on addressing child marriage in 2019.

Statistical analyses

Descriptive and multivariate analyses were implemented. At the descriptive level of analysis, the characteristics of the sample as well as the prevalence of early marriage were studied. In addition, the relationship between each selected covariate and age at first marriage is passed through a hypothesis test. A Pearson Chi-squared test is performed. Additionally, the Pearson product-moment correlation or Spearman’s rank order correlation were achieved between independent variables, to check for high intercorrelations among independent variables. At the multivariate level of analysis, we used a generalized linear model specifying binomial distribution and negative log-log link to ascertain determinants of age at first marriage. To analyse the data, the Statistical Packages for Social Sciences version 25.0 was used. All analyses were weighted to account for survey design. For the consideration of the country aspect of analysis, we performed descriptive and multivariate analyses independently for each country.

Selected study variables

Dependent variable

Young women’s age at first marriage was used as the outcome variable of the study. Age at first marriage expresses the age at which the first marriage or union with partner occurred (Elengemoke et al., 2017). Age at first marriage was dichotomized by assessing the value of 0 for age at first marriage being 18 years and above, and the value of 1 for age being less than 18 years, and 18 years is considered as the legal age for marriage for females.

Independent variables

Eleven independent variables categorized into socio-economic and cultural, demographic and behavioural characteristics were used in the analyses: education; literacy; employment status; family wealth index; exposure to media; religion; ethnicity; current age; region; type of place of residence; and age at first sexual intercourse.

Results

Current age and age at first marriage

Table 1 portrays the distribution of the current age and age at first marriage. It transpires that the majority (61.8%, 65.8%, 72.1%, and 74.8% in Niger, Mali, DRC and Malawi, respectively) of young women in the study were young adults (aged 20–24). Furthermore, nearly nine in 10 of married young women (87.7%) in Niger entered into a union by age 18, whereas 32.9% were marrying in their early adolescence (by age 15) in 2012. Besides, more than six in 10 of women living in a union (64.3%) in DRC reported that they started marriage before reaching the age of 18 years in 2014, along with 17.7% who began cohabiting in their early adolescence. A substantial number of married young Malian women (77.1%) entered into union by the age of 18 years in 2013, together with 32.3% of those who entered marriage by the age of 15. Furthermore, around six out of 10 young women (57.6%) in Malawi claimed that they entered marriage before reaching the age of 18 years in 2016, while 11.6% began a union in their early adolescence.

Table 1.

Distribution of current age group and age at first marriage by country.

Individual characteristics	Niger	Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)	Mali	Malawi
Individual characteristics	Number (%)	Number (%)	Number (%)	Number (%)
Age group
15-19	1150(38.2)	971(27.9)	831(34.3)	1411(25.2)
20-24	1859(61.8)	2511(72.1)	1593(65.7)	4183(74.8)
Total	3009(100)	3482(100)	2424(100)	5594(100)
Mean standard deviation (SD)	19.9(2.5)	20.7(2.2)	20.3(2.4)	21(2.1)
Age at first Marriage
<15	990(32.9)	617(17.7)	783(32.3)	651(11.6)
15 to 17	1650(54.8)	1621(46.6)	1087(44.8)	2573(46.0)
18 and+	369(12.3)	1244(35.7)	554(22.9)	2370(42.4)
Total	3009(100)	3482(100)	2424(100)	5594(100)
Mean (SD)	15.3(1.9)	16.7(2.4)	15.6(2.5)	17.1(2.3)

Sources: Computed by J.M. Elengemoke from Democratic Republic of Congo Standard Demographic and Health Survey 2013–2014 (2014), Malawi Standard Demographic and Health Survey 2015–2016 (2017), Mali Standard Demographic and Health Survey 2012–2013 (2014) and Niger Standard Demographic and Health Survey (2012).

Overall, the average age of respondents was 19.9, 20.3, 20.7 and 21.0 years in Niger, Mali, DRC and Malawi, respectively, while the average age at first marriage was 15.3, 15.6, 16.7 and 17.1 years in the same order.

Age at first marriage by background characteristics

Appendix Table A1 shows that 90.9%, 80.0%, 70.3% and 63.1% of women in the poorest wealth category in Niger, Mali, DRC and Malawi have experienced their first marriage by 18 years versus 72.7%, 65.4%, 60.3% and 42.5% (respectively) among those grouped in the richest category. It comes to light that the percentage of young people who experienced early marriage decreased with the living standard in the household. Also, the researchers’ results indicate that the average age at first marriage in Niger, Mali, DRC and Malawi increased from young people with no education (15.1, 15.4, 16.2 and 16.4, respectively) to those with secondary and higher education (17.0, 16.6, 17.1 and 18.5 in that order). This confirms that age at first marriage rationally increased with educational level. Additionally, Appendix Table A1 reveals that the highest prevalence of early marriage (by 18 years) was found among young women with no education (90.6%, 80.3%, 70.9%, and 70.3% in Niger, Mali, DRC and Malawi, respectively), but was lowest among women with secondary and higher education (64.2%, 62.9%, 58.9%, and 30.2% in that order).

There were also significant relationships between geographical location variables that is to say, region and place of residence and women’s age at first union in all four studied countries. In line with this, the proportion of early marriage varied from 94.6% in Maradi region to 55.9% in Niamey in Niger. Similarly, young women from Maniema province in DRC were more likely to enter into an early union (75.2%) compared to those from Bas Congo (48.4%). Furthermore, young women who resided in rural areas were more likely to face early union (15.1, 15.5, 16.6 and 17.0 years on average, respectively) in Niger, Mali, DRC and Malawi than those who resided in urban areas (16.7, 16.1, 16.9 and 17.7 years in that order). This suggests that the age at first union considerably varied between women living in rural or urban areas. Besides this, rural areas scored a higher proportion of women who have entered into an early union (91.1%, 78.8%, 65.2% and 59.1%) in Niger, Mali, DRC and Malawi when compared to urban areas which scored (65.9%, 70.9%, 62.0% and 47.4%, respectively).

The results from Appendix Table A1 indicate that on average, adolescents aged 15–19 were more likely to start a marriage at the early age (15.3, 14.8, 15.5, 15.6 and 16.3 in Niger, Mali, DRC and Malawi, respectively) than young adults (15.6, 16.1, 17.2 and 17.4 in that order). Reasonably, 97.4%, 92.8%, 88.5% and 74.5% of adolescents have undergone early union in Niger, Mali, DRC and Malawi against 81.7%, 69.0%, 54.9% and 51.9% (respectively) of young adults.

Age at first sexual intercourse appears to be strongly associated with age at first marriage among young women in SSA countries. The researchers’ findings highlight that on average, young women who were sexually active before reaching age 16 entered marriage earlier (14.1, 14.3, 15.4 and 15.7 years in Niger, Mali, DRC and Malawi, respectively) than those who were sexually active at age 18 and higher (18.8, 18.8, 19.1 and 19.0 years in that order). This implies that late sexual initiation, leads to tardy marriage. Moreover, early marriage was common among women who experienced sexual intercourse by 16 (99.7%, 92.3%, 82.9% and 81.5% in Niger, Mali, DRC and Malawi, respectively), but was negligible among those who experienced it at age 18–24 (3.5%, 11.9%, 5.4% and 11.2% in that order). Literacy and mass media exposure were statistically associated with age at first marriage. Literate and mass media exposed women were less likely to face early marriage in all four studied countries. Other socio-economic and cultural variables specifically, employment status, ethnicity and religion, were found significantly related to age at marriage. However, there are differences among countries. Employment status was significantly related with age at marriage in Niger and DRC only. Moreover, ethnicity was significantly related to age at marriage in Mali, DRC and Malawi, while religion was significantly related to age at marriage in Mali and Malawi.

Determinants of early marriage

Appendix Table A2 presents the results of negative log-log regressions on the risk factors of early age at first marriage in SSA countries. In the models, age at first marriage (union) was used as a dependent variable. Furthermore, age at first marriage was dichotomized by assessing the value of 0 for age at first marriage being 18 years and above, and the value of 1 for age being less than 18 years. Results exhibit similarity and variability in the factors affecting young women’s early entry into marriage across countries.

The associated risk factors of early marriage among young women in Niger, DRC, Mali, and Malawi are examined. The results of the study have highlighted 10 factors that significantly predict at 95% young women’s risk of early marriage in at least one of the four countries investigated in this research: age at first intercourse; education and literacy; women’s current age; region and type of place of residence; family wealth index; ethnicity; employment status; and mass media exposure.

Evidence from Appendix Table A2 emphasizes that women’s education and literacy negatively impact the likelihood of early marriage. Women without formal education have 1.62, 1.59 and 1.55 and 2.08 times (95% confidence interval (CI), 1.19–2.21; 95% CI, 1.23–2.04; 95% CI, 1.24–1.92 and 95% CI, 1.60–2.71 in Niger, Mali, DRC and Malawi, respectively) more risk of early union than their secondary or higher educated counterparts. Similarly, illiterate women are 1.18 times (95% CI, 1.04–1.35) more likely to get married by the age of 18 than their literate counterparts in Malawi. When it comes to the family standard of living, results reveal that participants categorized as poor are 0.69 times (95% CI, 0.51–0.95) less likely to face early marriage than those categorized as rich in Niger, whereas those registered in the middle category are 1.41 times (95% CI, 1.05–1.91) more likely to face early marriage than those recorded in the rich category in Mali. No significant fluctuations were found in Malawi, in spite of the significant relationship between family wealth index and early age at first union. Results point out that the participants’ media exposure was positively associated with the probability of facing early marriage in Malawi. Participants who are exposed to media less than weekly are 0.84 (95% CI, 0.73–0.97) less likely to enter into the union of matrimony before the age of 18 than those exposed weekly and daily. Employment status shows a significant relationship with early age at first union. Respondents who were not employed at the time of the survey are 0.85 times (95% CI, 0.74–0.97, in DRC) and 0.78 times (95% CI, 0.65–0.95, in Mali) less likely to come across early marriage than their employed counterparts. Indeed, ethnicity influences the chances of facing early union in Mali. Sénoufo/Minianka and Bobo women are 0.63 and 0.46 times (95% CI, 0.46–0.88 and 95% CI, 0.30–0.72, respectively) less likely to confront early marriage compared to their Bambara fellows. Moreover, the results show that the demographic factor, namely, current age is significantly associated with early marriage. Adolescent women (aged 15–19) in Niger, DRC, Mali, and Malawi are 6.43, 4.85, 3.83 and 1.50 times (95% CI, 4.30–9.62; 95% CI, 3.94–5.97; 95% CI, 2.93–5.01 and 95% CI, 1.33–1.70, respectively) more likely to experience early marriage than their young adult women (20–24) counterparts.

Geographical location factors, that is to say region and place of residence, are found to be predictors of early marriage in SSA countries. Young women from the Maradi region in Niger are 2.18 times (95% CI, 1.38–3.46) more likely to face early marriage compared to those from Niamey, while those from the Bas Congo region in DRC are 0.46 times (95% CI, 0.27–0.78) less likely to confront early marriage than those from Kinshasa, the capital city. No significant variations between regions were found when compared to the respondents from the Southern region in Malawi. With regards to place of residence, participants living in urban areas are 0.59 times (95% CI, 0.41–0.85, in Niger) and 0.81 times (95% CI, 0.68–0.96, in Malawi) less likely to enter cohabitation before the age of 18 than those living in rural areas. In the contrary, participants living in urban areas are 1.22 times (95% CI, 1.01–1.48) more likely to challenge early marriage compared to their fellows living in rural areas in DRC. Behavioural factors such as age at first sexual intercourse positively influences age at first marriage in Sub-Saharan Africa. Respondents who faced sexual activity by 16 (odds ratio (OR) =65.62 in Niger), (OR = 5.83 in Mali), (OR = 3.82 in DRC) are more at risk of early marriage than those who initiated it at the age 16 and above. In Malawi, respondents who challenged sexual activity by 16 (OR = 9.30) are more at risk of early marriage than those who initiated it at the aged of 18–24.

Discussion

Factors associated with early marriage

The aim of this study was to examine the socio-economic and demographic determinants of early marriage among young women in the SSA countries using the Democratic Republic of Congo Standard Demographic and Health Survey 2013–2014 (2014), Malawi Standard Demographic and Health Survey 2015–2016 (2017), Mali Standard Demographic and Health Survey 2012–2013 (2014) and Niger Standard Demographic and Health Survey (2012) data.

Risk of early marriage has been found to decrease with women’s educational level across all four countries of the study. The findings indicate that women without formal education have a higher risk of early union than their secondary or higher educated counterparts. This suggests that the lower the level of education, the higher the chance of confronting early marriage. Furthermore, illiterate women are more likely to get married by the age of 18 than their literate counterparts in Malawi. Our study found that women’s current age was a crucial predictor of early marriage among Congolese, Malian and Malawian young women. Multivariate analysis shows that adolescent women (15–19) are more likely to experience early union than their young adult women (20–24) counterparts.

Moreover, our findings revealed that risk of early marriage was strongly associated with age at first sexual intercourse in all four countries of the study. Young women who faced early sexual activity (by age 16) are more at risk of early marriage than those who initiated it at the age 16 and above. This implies that the earlier the sexual intercourse initiation, the higher the probability of facing early union.

Women’s region and place of residence are found to be predictors of early marriage. Young women from the Maradi region in Niger are more likely to face early marriage compared to those from Niamey, while those from the Bas Congo region in DRC are less likely to confront early marriage than those from Kinshasa, the capital city. No significant variations between regions were found when compared to the respondents from the Southern region in Malawi. With regards to place of residence, inconsistent results have been highlighted across three countries. Participants living in urban areas are less likely to enter union before the age of 18 than those living in rural areas in Niger and Malawi. In the contrary, participants living in urban areas are more likely to challenge early marriage compared to their fellows living in rural areas in DRC. Another determinant of early marriage was the household wealth. Multivariate analysis results reveal that women, registered in the middle category are more likely to face early marriage than those recorded in the rich category in Mali. In contrast, women categorized as poor are less likely to face early marriage than those categorized as rich in Niger. No significant fluctuations were found in Malawi, in spite of the significant relationship between family wealth index and early age at first union.

Our results point out that women’s employment status shows a significant relationship with early age at first union in DRC and Mali. Respondents who were not employed at the time of the survey are less likely to come across early marriage than their employed counterparts. Moreover, the participants’ media exposure was positively associated with the probability of facing early marriage in Malawi only. Participants who are exposed to media less than weekly are less likely to enter into the union of matrimony before the age of 18 than those exposed weekly and daily. In turn, ethnicity influence the chances of facing early union in Mali only. Sénoufo/Minianka and Bobo women are less likely to confront early marriage compared to their Bambara fellows.

Study findings in relation to other studies

The results of our study indicate that women’s education is an important determinant of age at first marriage in all four countries of the studies. These findings confirm earlier research which showed a strong association between women’s education and age at first marriage (Ayiga and Rampagane, 2013; Doyle et al., 2012; Nasrin and Rahman, 2012; Palamuleni, 2011; Romaniuk, 2011). Findings from Malawi, South Africa and Uganda pointed out that education is the most determinant factor of age at first marriage (Ayiga and Rampagane, 2013; Palamuleni, 2011) – adolescents who are in school are less likely to marry early (Kamal et al., 2015; Kara and Maharaj, 2015). One of the reasons could be cultural. In a number of African cultures, women are to be married and become good homemakers for their husbands. The cultural expectation and patterns are such that if highly educated, a girl may find it difficult to get a husband or be a good wife. Given that education lets girls imagine and plan their own futures as noted by Martin (1995), policy-makers are stimulated to implement universal education which states that primary education is free and compulsory in order to deal with this dramatic reality. It has been demonstrated that schools are an increasingly important institutional environment for young people at a phase of life when sexual activity becomes more prevalent (National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, 2005).

Multivariate analysis shows adolescent women are more likely to face early marriage than their young adult women counterparts. In the vein of Palamuleni (2011), this study found women’s current age as a risk predictor of early marriage. A possible explanation could be the observance of the legal minimum age of marriage for women, which is maintained at 15 in Niger, DRC and Malawi, and 16 in Mali (African Child Policy Forum, 2013). Cultural and traditional practices such as female genital cutting, also contribute to early marriage in some regions of Niger and Mali. The reason given for early marriage in these regions is that at this time the girls are still virgins and clean and this has bargaining power in terms of payment of bride wealth.

In the present study, the average age at first sexual activity is 15.3 in Niger and Mali, and 15.7 and 16.2 years in DRC and Malawi, respectively; a significant percentage of respondents reported early sexual activity. Furthermore, in both countries under investigation, the greater percentage of respondents who initiated early sexual activity (by age 16) faced early marriage compared to very few of those who initiated sexual intercourse at the age of 16 and older, indicating that early sexual activity possibly leads to early union. The multivariate analysis found that respondents who faced early sexual activity are more at risk of early marriage than those who initiated it at the age 16 and above in Niger, DRC and Mali. In Malawi, respondents who challenged early sexual activity are more at risk of early marriage than those who initiated it at the age of 18–24. These findings support Ayiga and Rampagane’s (2013) result which showed that age at first sexual activity is a determinant of age at first marriage. Programme planners are encouraged to develop a set of interventions and support related to youth sexual activity. Therefore, youths who are already sexually active may develop the knowledge, skills, and motivation necessary to practise safer sexual behaviours. Combining age-appropriate sexual health information with activities to help develop communication and negotiation skills, can help young people who are not already sexually active to delay the onset of sexual activity (Goldman, 2011; Koyama et al., 2009). Moreover, numerous girls in early and middle adolescence are coerced into sexual activity. Hence, there is a need for alternative education and skills-building strategies that differ from those developed for adolescents who freely engage in sexual activity (Goldman, 2011; Sedlock, 2000).

Our study found that the likelihood of early marriage was associated with the type of residence across three countries. Participants living in urban areas are less likely to marry by age of 18 than those living in rural areas in Niger and Malawi. In the contrary, participants living in urban areas are more likely to face early marriage compared to their fellows living in rural areas in DRC. With reference to regions of residence, results indicate a significant relationship between age at first union and respondent’s region in Niger and DRC. Participants from Maradi region in Niger are more likely to marry before the age of 18 compared to those from Niamey, whereas those from the Bas Congo region in DRC are less likely to marry before the age of 18 compared to those those from Kinshasa, the capital city. Our findings reinforce the importance of regional differences in age at first marriage within countries. Other studies have showed that province and place of residence are factors that significantly affect the timing of marriage (Ayiga and Rampagane, 2013; Palamuleni, 2011; Kara and Maharaj, 2015). Moreover, findings from Sub-Saharan Africa underlined that a rural environment is favourable for early sexual debut and early marriage (Akoto et al., 2005; Kara and Maharaj, 2015). Therefore, the differences between urban and rural areas, impact girls and young women’s status, their economic socialization and entering sexual and maternal life.

Our findings indicate that household wealth is an important determinant of age at first marriage in Niger and Mali. This is consistent with previous studies which revealed that poverty plays a fundamental role in maintaining child marriage (Elengemoke et al., 2017; Kamal et al., 2015; Nour, 2006). In reality, the traditional practice of early marriage is most prevalent in poor, rural communities, and it often perpetuates the cycle of poverty.

Other studies have suggested exposure to media as an important factor in predicting adolescents’ and young people’s sexual and reproductive behaviour (Asante et al., 2018; Barber and Axinn, 2004; Cheng, 2011; Gupta et al., 2003; Wado et al., 2019). Growing evidence has revealed that young people need accurate information concerning their reproductive behaviour (Barber and Axinn, 2004; Cheng, 2011; Gupta et al., 2003). Our study found that ethnicity influences the chances of facing early marriage in Mali. Sénoufo/Minianka and Bobo women are less likely to confront early marriage compared to their Bambara fellows. Similarly, an investigation of age at first marriage in South Africa and Uganda indicated that ethnicity may influence age at marriage through age at sexual debut (Ayiga and Rampagane, 2013).

Limitations and strengths of this study

The present study has a number of limitations, which should be taken into account when interpreting the results. This study was based on cross-sectional data, where the direction of causal relationships cannot always be established. Moreover, almost all information collected in a DHS is subject to reporting and recall biases. Certain information, such as the age of the respondent, initiation to sexual activity and age at marriage refers to events in the past. This inevitably causes biases, along with, the number of ORs present with wide CIs, due to the large outliers on some of the categories of the independent variables. Despite these limitations, this study has some significant strengths. It has the advantage of using a representative sample on a national level, which allows for the generalization of the results. In addition, this study is unique in that it adds wealth of knowledge on the determinants of early marriage in SSA countries, namely Niger, DRC, Mali and Malawi by examining the influences of several socio-economic, demographic and behavioural factors.

Conclusion

This paper aimed to ascertain information on youth age at first marriage, thereby improving the state of knowledge about the factors explaining youth early marriage in SSA countries. Findings show that the average age at first union increased from young women with no education (15.1, 15.4, 16.2 and 16.4 in Niger, Mali, DRC and Malawi, respectively) to those with higher education (17.0, 16.6, 17.1 and 18.5 in that order). It emerges that age at first marriage increased with educational level and the highest proportion of participants who experienced early marriage among young women with no education and the lowest among women with higher education are 90.6%, 80.3%, 70.9% and 70.3% in Niger, Mali, DRC and Malawi, respectively and 64.2%, 62.9%, 58.9% and 30.2% in that order. The associated risk factors of early marriage among young women in Niger, DRC, Mali, and Malawi are examined. The results exhibit similarity and variability in the factors affecting young women’s early entry into marriage across countries. It emerged that education and literacy, age at first intercourse, woman’s current age, region and type of place of residence, family wealth index, employment status, ethnicity and mass media exposure are factors that significantly determined young women’s risk of early marriage in at least one of the four countries investigated in this research. Worldwide, adolescents challenge increased sexual activity. On the other hand, basic education is not universal, free and compulsory in Niger, DRC and Mali and the legal minimum age of marriage for women, is maintained at 15 in Niger, DRC and Malawi, and 16 in Mali (African Child Policy Forum, 2013).

Recommendations

Deductions from the researchers’ analysis suggest that poor reproductive health outcomes are likely to be on the increase for these young women in SSA countries. Policy frameworks stemming this tide are imperative. Furthermore, there is an urgent need for formal sex education before first sexual initiation (before the age of 14) to give better options than early marriage to adolescent girls. The SSA government (policy-makers) particularly in Niger and Mali are stimulated to implement universal primary education, which should be free and compulsory and extend primary education from six to eight years. The SSA government (policymakers) are encouraged to enforce a law that criminalizes child marriages in the region, given the link of early marriage to poor reproductive health and social outcomes.

Footnotes

Appendix

Table A2.

Multivariable analysis results of age at first cohabitation in Niger, Democratic Republic of Congo, Mali and Malawi.

Characteristics	Niger (Model I)	DRC (Model II)	Mali (Model III)	Malawi (Model IV)
Characteristics	Odds ratio (OR) (95% confidence interval (CI))	OR (95% CI)	OR (95% CI)	OR (95% CI)
Socio-economic
Education	**	***	**	***
No education	1.62**(1.19, 2.21)	1.55***(1.24, 1.92)	1.59***(1.23, 2.04)	2.08***(1.60, 2.71)
Primary	1.282(0.9, 1.83)	1.24**(1.08, 1.44)	1.31(0.96, 1.8)	2.03***(1.79, 2.3)
Secondary/higher RC
Literacy				*
Illiterates	–	–	–	1.18*(1.04, 1.35)
Literates RC
Mass media exposure				*
Not at all	1.25(0.93, 1.68)	1.16(0.99, 1.36)	1.27(0.98, 1.65)	0.92(0.82, 1.04)
Less than weekly	1.26(0.95, 1.69)	1.02(0.85, 1.23)	1.11(0.88, 1.4)	0.84*(0.73, 0.97)
Weekly and daily RC
Family wealth index	**		*	*
Poor	0.69*(0.51, 0.95)	1.03(0.85, 1.26)	1.02(0.79, 1.32)	0.91(0.79, 1.04)
Middle	1.17(0.8, 1.67)	1.15(0.94, 1.41)	1.41*(1.05, 1.91)	1.08(0.92, 1.26)
Rich RC
Employment status		*	*
No	0.96(0.72, 1.29)	0.85*(0.75, 0.97)	0.78*(0.65, 0.95)	–
Yes RC
Socio-cultural	–
Religion
Muslim	–	–	–	1.02(0.83, 1.26)
No religion and other	–	–	–	1.25(0.55, 2.87)
Christian RC
Ethnicity			**
Bakongo North and South	–	0.97(0.55, 1.73)	–	–
Bas-Kasai and Kwilu-Kwango	–	0.72(0.47, 1.09)	–	–
Cuvette central	–	1.07(0.78, 1.48)	–	–
Uele Lake Albert	–	0.93(0.61, 1.41)	–	–
Basele-K, Man. and Kivu	–	1.01(0.61, 1.66)	–	–
Kasai, Katanga, Tanganika	–	0.89(0.56, 1.41)	–	–
Lunda/pygmy	–	1.07(0.42, 2.73)	–	–
Others/foreign/non-Congolese	–	0.38(0.14, 1.03)	–	–
Ubangi and Itimbiri		RC
Malinke	–	–	0.74(0.54, 1.03)	–
Peulh	–	–	0.86(0.65, 1.13)	–
Sarakole/soninke/marka	–	–	0.86(0.61, 1.2)	–
Sonraï	–	–	1.65(0.66, 4.11)	–
Dogon	–	–	0.77(0.53, 1.13)	–
Tamachek/bélla	–	–	3.13(0.77, 12.77)	–
Sénoufo/Minianka	–	–	0.63**(0.46, 0.88)	–
Bobo	–	–	0.46**(0.3, 0.72)	–
Other African countries/other nationalities	–	–	0.85(0.58, 1.24)	–
Bambara			RC
Tumbuka	–	–	–	1.04(0.79, 1.37)
Lomwe	–	–	–	1.14(0.95, 1.38)
Tonga	–	–	–	0.6(0.39, 0.92)
Yao	–	–	–	0.85(0.67, 1.06)
Sena	–	–	–	1.07(0.8, 1.43)
Nkhonde	–	–	–	0.72(0.39, 1.35)
Ngoni	–	–	–	1.07(0.9, 1.27)
Mang’anja	–	–	–	1.11(0.76, 1.64)
Nyanga	–	–	–	1.47(0.87, 2.48)
Other	–	–	–	1.37(0.79, 2.38)
Chewa				RC
Demographics
Age	***	***	***	***
15–19	6.43***(4.3, 9.62)	4.85***(3.94, 5.97)	3.83***(2.93, 5.01)	1.50***(1.33, 1.70)
20–24 RC
Enabling
Region	**	**
Agadez	0.42(0.12, 1.53)
Diffa
Dosso	1.06(0.68, 1.64)	–	–	–
Maradi	2.18**(1.38, 3.46)	–	–	–
Tahoua	1.23(0.82, 1.87)	–	–	–
Tillaberi	1.34(0.84, 2.13)	–	–	–
Zinder	1.54(1, 2.36)	–	–	–
Niamey	RC
Bandundu	–	0.84(0.58, 1.22)	–	–
Bas-Congo	–	0.46**(0.27, 0.78)	–	–
Equateur	–	0.78(0.5, 1.21)	–	–
Kasai-Occidental	–	1.2(0.78, 1.84)	–	–
Kasai-Oriental	–	1.09(0.72, 1.65)	–	–
Katanga	–	1.04(0.68, 1.61)	–	–
Maniema	–	1.11(0.59, 2.08)	–	–
Nord-Kivu	–	0.61(0.35, 1.06)	–	–
Orientale	–	0.68(0.41, 1.13)	–	–
Sud-Kivu	–	0.85(0.49, 1.49)	–	–
Kinshasa		RC
Kayes	–	–	1.82(1.18, 2.81)	–
Koulikoro	–	–	1.05(0.71, 1.55)	–
Sikasso	–	–	1.16(0.78, 1.73)	–
Segou	–	–	1.11(0.75, 1.63)	–
Mopti	–	–	1.15(0.74, 1.79)	–
Bamako			RC	*
Northern region	–	–	–	1.24(0.94, 1.65)
Central region	–	–	–	0.89(0.77, 1.03)
Southern region				RC
Type of place of residence	**	*		*
Urban	0.59**(0.41, 0.85)	1.23*(1.01, 1.48)	1.23(0.89, 1.7)	0.81*(0.68, 0.96)
Rural RC
Behavioural
Age at first intercourse	***	***	***
< 16	65.62***(30.92,139.29)	3.82***(3.33, 4.39)	5.83***(4.7, 7.23)	–
16 and+ RC
Age at first intercourse				***
< 16	–	–	–	9.30***(8.19,10.57)
16 to 17	–	–	–	5.52***(4.93, 6.19)
18 and + RC

Sources: Democratic Republic of Congo Standard Demographic and Health Survey 2013–2014 (2014), Malawi Standard Demographic and Health Survey 2015–2016 (2017), Mali Standard Demographic and Health Survey 2012–2013 (2014) and Niger Standard Demographic and Health Survey (2012), computed by the authors.

***

= p<0.001, ** = p< 0.01, * = p<0.05 (***, ** and * indicated the level of significance at specific level); RC = reference category.

Note. Age at first intercourse – The variable age at first intercourse presents large outliers when grouped into two categories in Malawi. It was categorised in three in order to reduce the wide odds ratios confidence intervals.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the United States Agency for International Development for the free online Demographic and Health Survey Data Set.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

A. Sathiya Susuman

Author biographies

Jacques M. Elengemoke has a PhD in Population Studies. He is a researcher at University of the Western Cape and independent statistician/data analyst.

A. Sathiya Susuman is at the Faculty of Natural Sciences, Dept. of Statistics and Population Studies. He has twenty years of research experience in the field of population studies/demography. His specific research interests are Reproductive and child health, Migration & HIV/AIDS, Contraceptive dynamics, Mortality, Fertility issues, Ageing & retirement, Empowerment of women, Population & Development, Socio-economic inequality, Family Demography, Technical demography, Public Health & Health policy.

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