Mango Diplomacy of South Asian Countries

Abstract

This article examines the mango diplomacy of South Asia’s mango exporting countries. Diplomatic gifts are a common feature of public diplomacy of diplomatic missions globally. There are many prominent examples of that including China’s panda diplomacy and mango diplomacy of South Asia’s mango exporting countries like Bangladesh, India and Pakistan. Based on the analysis, this study argues that Pakistan is a dominant actor in terms of mango diplomacy and has an extensive strategy, for example, including mango exhibitions, to increase its mango exports and goodwill in target countries.

Keywords

Mango diplomacy South Asia Pakistan India Bangladesh

Introduction

In July 2021, Prime Minister of Bangladesh Sheikh Hasina sent Haribhanga mangoes to her counterparts in India and Pakistan. While it was not a surprise that she gifted mangoes to Prime Minister Narendra Modi of India considering the Awami League’s historic relationship with India, sending mangoes to Prime Minister Imran Khan of Pakistan demonstrated Dhaka’s willingness to recalibrate its troubled relationship with Pakistan (Hassan and Ahmed, 2021). Having been engaged in mango diplomacy for several years, albeit outside of South Asia, Islamabad also reciprocated by gifting mangoes to Bangladeshi leadership. In terms of mango exports from South Asia, India and Pakistan are leading players with Bangladesh being a newcomer in the international market. As the three compete in the international market in terms of mango exports, mango diplomacy has become a key feature of their diplomacy in key mango markets like North American, Europe and the Gulf region. Considering these dynamics, this paper aims to examine the nature and effectiveness of South Asian countries’ mango diplomacy by answering the following questions: Is mango diplomacy helping build stronger economic and political relationships of South Asia’s mango exporters with other countries? Is mango diplomacy reflective of existing strong relations of South Asia’s mango exporters with other countries?

States use different soft power tools to achieve influence in other states. Soft power gained currency as states acknowledged its value in advancing their foreign policy and pursuing their interests. Beyond the literature on the United States during the Cold War era, International Relations scholars have focused on how developed states and emerging economies enhance their soft power capabilities (Gupta, 2013). States can use a variety of soft power resources and instruments, for example, public diplomacy, at bilateral and multilateral levels. Such strategies also help states in setting up international agendas (Wang and Lu, 2008), for example, through international organisations. To promote its goodwill and to enhance relations with selected countries, China has used panda diplomacy (Huang and Wang, 2020). Like Confucius Institutes in 140 countries, pandas are one of China’s main diplomatic tools as Beijing has gifted pandas to 25 zoos globally (Pacher, 2017). Similarly, as an emerging power, India has been using different public diplomacy tools like ‘yoga diplomacy’ to enhance its standing in world affairs. Considering yoga as India’s key cultural component with significant global appeal, New Delhi lobbied successfully at the United Nations to designate 21 June as the International Yoga Day in 2014 (Al Jazeera, 2019).

Diplomatic gifts are common in terms of how diplomatic missions operate around the world. The art of selecting gifts for foreign heads of state has evolved into a subtle form of diplomacy. The aim is not only to further foreign policy objectives but also demonstrate the best of craftsmanship and quality by promoting locally made goods and produce (The New York Times, 1984). Leaders and diplomats present gifts, both cheap and expensive, to their counterparts, for example when Malcolm Fraser, former Australian Prime Minister, visited the United States, President Reagan gave him a custom-made bamboo fishing rod (The New York Times, 1984). In 2018, Prime Minister Imran Khan was gifted a wristwatch worth approximately US$100,000 by Crown Prince Mohammad Bin Salman of Saudi Arabia (The News, 2018). Also, states present gifts to international organisations, for example, the UN headquarters in New York is full of such gifts that are displayed in its building.¹ Diplomatic gifts can also take an organised form of diplomacy when done systematically through diplomatic missions and this is the case of South Asia’s two top mango exporters, that is, India and Pakistan. As Bangladesh slowly expands its mango exports and has joined India and Pakistan in mango diplomacy, this study focuses on these three countries.

There is some literature on public or cultural diplomacy of the selected South Asian states. A study on India’s foreign policy argues that its public diplomacy helps the country in achieving its key objectives through international recognition of India not just as a rising power but also as an attractive tourist and investment destination (Arjit, 2020). Another study found that India is investing in public diplomacy to counter China’s growing soft power (Hall, 2012). A study on India’s cultural diplomacy claimed that the Indian diaspora plays an active role in projecting India’s goodwill abroad (Isar, 2017). There have however been no comparable studies done on Bangladesh and Pakistan’s public diplomacy in general, and the mango diplomacy of Bangladesh, India and Pakistan in particular. This research is the first of its kind that not just examines mango diplomacy within public diplomacy of the three states but also carries out a comparative analysis of their strategies. This research will contribute to the overall literature on public diplomacy of South Asian states. We have collected data from a variety of sources, including official documents and the media to present an analysis of how mango diplomacy works and is received by diplomats and leaders in targeted countries.

In terms of the structure of this paper, it begins with an overview of mango exports of the selected countries. This follows an analysis of policies and approaches concerning mango diplomacy and how they are received internationally.

South Asian mango exports: an overview

The three largest countries of South Asia are among the world’s top 10 mango exporters in the world (Kousar et al., 2019). Mangoes are one of the most commercialised fruits of these states and are considered the ‘king of fruits’. In South Asia, India is the leading mango exporter. During the fiscal year 2020–2021, India’s mango production accounted for approximately 21 million metric tonnes, and it exported US$137 million worth of mangoes (Statista Research Department, 2020). During the fiscal year 2020–2021, Pakistan exported approximately 150,000 tonnes of mangoes (Zang, 2020). Its mango exports have been growing and reached US$104 million in 2019–2020 from US$78 million – an increase of 33% – in 2018–2019. Similarly, Bangladesh’s mango exports increased threefold to 791 tonnes (US$50,000) in the 2020–2021 financial year from 279 tonnes in 2019–2020 (Ahmad, 2021). A study found that more than half of the world’s mango exports go to the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Germany and the United States (Baliyan, 2017). India has a less competitive advantage because of the high price of mangoes at home but India has recently dealt with that by increasing its mango production (Baliyan, 2017). In terms of mango exports, Bangladesh is far behind in terms of competing with India and Pakistan. Pakistan and India mainly compete in mango exports. During the 2020–2021 fiscal year, Pakistan’s mango exports accounted for US$104 million as compared to India’s US$137 million (Statista Research Department, 2020). Their competition is obvious as they export mangoes to the same destinations in Europe, North America and the Gulf region (see Table 1).

Table 1.

Top 10 mangoes importing countries (2017).

No.	Country	Imports in US$ million	Global share in %
1	The United States	656.4	23.2
2	The Netherlands	280.2	9.9
3	Germany	197.1	7.0
4	Vietnam	193.7	6.9
5	The United Kingdom	170.7	6.0
6	China	166.7	5.9
7	France	133.0	4.7
8	Canada	105.6	3.7
9	Spain	83.0	2.9
10	United Arab Emirates	68.3	2.4

Source: World’s Richest Countries (2017).

A study showed that Pakistan has a comparative advantage in mango exports in South Asia, Europe and the Gulf region (Kousar et al., 2019). In 2019, the top export destination for Pakistani mangoes was the Middle East accounting for more than 70% of the country’s total mango exports. Pakistan’s most dedicated mango markets are the United Arab Emirates, Iran, Oman and Saudi Arabia (Saima, 2019). Afghanistan is also among the top importers of Pakistani mangoes. Despite having a comparative advantage and competitiveness, Pakistan’s comparative advantage in mango exports has not been observed much because India still leads in many regions by virtue of its higher mango production (Kousar et al., 2019).

Bangladesh can produce around 1 million tonnes of mangoes per year but for now, it is far behind its potential (Sarkar, 2019). In 2015, Bangladesh only exported 800 tonnes of mango to Europe. In 2016, the quantity fell to 300 tonnes because of tough import regulations in Europe (Sarkar, 2019). Bangladesh should have been aware of necessary requirements for exporting mangoes. Traders must comply with the quarantine requisites of certifications and phytosanitary in relation to the health and quality of plants as per the globally applied rules, particularly for fruit exports. Bangladeshi exporters, however, could not fulfil these requirements and therefore 15 shipments of vegetables and fruits of Bangladesh were denied by European countries. Bangladesh does have an advantage because its mango season arrives earlier than in other countries and its mangoes are considered special and among the most delicious in the United Kingdom (Sarkar, 2019). To fully benefit from this advantage compared to India and Pakistan, Bangladesh has to first increase its mango production.

Mango diplomacy

In this section, we examine mango diplomacy and its significance within the public diplomacy approaches of the selected states.

Policy and implementation

As a tribute to the court, the planting of mangoes orchards and then sending the best among those fruits were encouraged by the Mughals who ruled most of the Indian sub-continent during the 16th and 17th centuries. The seventh Nizam of Hyderabad, Osman Ali Khan, also had a tradition of gifting fruits to the respectable of his court in anticipation of a considerable nazar or what they used to call a compliment in response to a ‘gift’ (Doctor, 2017). It has been analysed that mangoes and Maharajas (princes) went side by side. When JRD Tata established Tata Aviation in the 1930s, which later became Air India, the starting air cargo from Maharajas included pearls, betel nuts and crates of mangoes (Doctor, 2017).

This tradition continued after India’s independence in 1947. A famous giver of mango gifts was former Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. Although, the guavas of his hometown Allahabad were famous, and he liked them, he knew that mangoes would make an important diplomatic impact. For India, mangoes remained important during visits of foreign dignitaries and Indian diplomats who carried mangoes and even mango plants while visiting abroad (Doctor, 2017). Until 1961, India’s mango exports were not allowed into the United States by the US Department of Agriculture. Following Nehru’s visit to the United States in 1961, the United States granted permission for importing mangoes as an exception. Then, India’s ambassador to the United States B. K. Nehru hosted a reception in which Indian mangoes were included in the menu.

In the decades that followed, India’s mango diplomacy was negligible and was only revived when US President George W. Bush visited New Delhi and India’s Prime Minister Manmohan Singh took this opportunity to highlight the significance of Indian mangoes. During his visit, Bush assured Singh that the ‘US is looking forward to eating Indian mangoes’ (Hindustan Times, 2007). The Bhabha Atomic Research Centre also played an important part by developing irradiation techniques to comply with the regulation of the US Department of Agriculture, and after 18 years Indian mangoes reached the US market in 2007 (Doctor, 2017; The Economic Times, 2007). Still, mango diplomacy was not very organised until recently. In 2017, New Delhi organised mango festivals in South Korea and China to revive mango diplomacy and increase mango exports (Arun, 2017). Then India exported large quantities of mangoes to China, but Beijing suspended this trade following the outbreak of COVID-19 (Freshplaza, 2020). As we will discuss below, India has not been able to match Pakistan’s mango diplomacy, and this could be because the latter is trying to capture bigger international markets in terms of its mango exports.

Pakistani President General Zia-ul-Haq and Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had re-initiated the tradition of exchanging mango gifts in the early 1980s. Following Zia-ul-Haq’s death in a plane crash in 1988, there were multiple causes discussed including one that his plane was carrying mango crates sprayed with a toxic gas that killed everyone on board (Associated Press, 2010). While mango diplomacy has remained a constant feature of Pakistan’s public diplomacy, it has been expanded under Imran Khan’s tenure since 2018. In 2020, President of Pakistan Arif Alvi convened a meeting and decided to launch a campaign to promote Pakistani mangoes through diplomatic missions by giving ‘gift of mangoes’ to heads of selected countries to increase Pakistan’s goodwill and mango exports. Consequently, mango promotion activities were organised by the Trade Development Authority of Pakistan in 24 cities (The Nation, 2020). Also, mango gifts were sent to more than 32 heads of state, including the United States, China, India, Iran, Turkey and Gulf states, Russia, the United Kingdom, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh (Iqbal, 2021). Pakistan’s Commerce Ministry also supports the local mango exporters. In this regard, Ahmad Jawad, former chief of the agriculture committee of Federation of Pakistan Chambers of Commerce and Industry, shared, ‘We used to kick-start mango export in mid-May, but due to changes in environment the mango season now begins late, therefore the government has decided to start export accordingly’ (Hanif, 2021). After an agreement between the Civil Aviation Authority and the Ministry of Commerce, a high-capacity scanner has been installed at the Karachi airport to facilitate food consignments including mango exports. Pakistan is also reducing tariffs on mango exports to increase its competitive advantage in mango exports (Hanif, 2021).

As a small South Asian actor in mango exports, Bangladesh does not have an extensive mango diplomacy strategy like that of Pakistan. Dhaka has however demonstrated that it values mango diplomacy. In 2021, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina sent Bangladeshi special Haribhanga mango to Prime Minister of Pakistan Imran Khan on the festive occasion of Eid-ul-Adha. This was a significant development considering the relationship between Bangladesh and Pakistan faced serious hiccups in 2013 due to the differences over the International Crimes Tribunal of Bangladesh that has convicted several high-profile opposition leaders, including Abdul Quadar Molla of Jamaat-e-Islami (Ahmed and Zahoor, 2019). Hasina also gifted 2600 kg of mangoes to Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi and Chief Minister of West Bengal Mamata Banerjee and other senior Indian leaders. She has also gifted the Haribhanga special mangoes to leaders of Bhutan, Nepal, the Maldives and some Middle Eastern countries (Hassan, 2021). Focusing on Bangladesh’s mango diplomacy, scholars argue that

Sending mangoes to India was expected. Bangladesh wants to harness a close and warm relationship with its giant neighbour [India]. But sending a bushel of the fruit to Pakistan was perhaps more of a surprise – doubly so when Pakistan sent mangoes in return, to both Bangladesh’s prime minister and president. (Hassan and Ahmed, 2021)

Since then, there has been a breakthrough in the Bangladesh–Pakistan relationship as Hasina has met Pakistan’s ambassador to Bangladesh and agreed to enhance bilateral cooperation (Hasan, 2021).

Reception

India did not particularly pursue mango diplomacy during the last three decades of the 20th century and it was eventually revived by the Manmohan Singh government in 2006 when US President George W. Bush visited India. India’s mango diplomacy was not fully re-activated until 2017 when it first organised mango festivals in China and South Korea (Arun, 2017). At an event hosted by the Commerce Department in Washington on 1 May 2007, Indian Ambassador Ronen Sen and US Agriculture Secretary Mike Johanns and US Trade Representative Susan Schwab were seen eating and praising Indian mangoes (Carp, 2007). Just after 5 weeks, a pact on nuclear energy and trade was announced by Bush and on that occasion, he said, ‘The US is looking forward to eating Indian mangoes’ (Carp, 2007).

The mango season in South Asia is summer (around June and July) and then mangoes are exchanged as diplomatic gifts by Pakistan through its diplomatic missions. In 2020, Dutch ambassador to Pakistan Wouter Plomp tweeted a photo in which he was eating mangoes received from Shujat Rathore, Ambassador of Pakistan to the Netherlands. Similarly, British High Commissioner to Pakistan Thomas Drew referred to the mango season and the generosity of the country as ‘two of the joys of Pakistan’, with a specific likeness for Chaunsa mangoes of Multan, a major city in the Punjab province. Eating at roadside stalls, praising local products and visiting small towns then exhibiting them on social media are key features of European and Chinese public diplomacy in Pakistan. In 2016, the US Consulate in Karachi launched a social media campaign with #MangoMania to show the likeness of American diplomats for Pakistani mangoes (Weinstein and Rasool, 2020). Dr Christian Turner, the British High Commissioner to Pakistan received much local fame when he quoted Mirza Ghalib (among the finest Urdu poets) in his tweet with photos of mango slices, ‘Aamo mein bus do khubiya honi chahiye, ek meethay ho aur bahut saray ho (Mangoes should have two qualities: They need to be sweet and there needs to be aplenty)’ (Abbas, 2020).² Similarly, Wouter Plomp, the Dutch Ambassador to Pakistan, expressed his love for mangoes in his tweet in Urdu, ‘Pakistani aam dunya may behtreen hay (Pakistani mangoes are the best in the world)’ (Jamal, 2020).³ He also mentioned Anwar Ratol, a famous variety of mangoes to be his favourite and thanked the Ambassador of Pakistan to the Netherlands for the gift. Benedict de Cerjat, Switzerland’s Ambassador to Pakistan, thanked the Chief of Pakistan Army, General Qamar Javed Bajwa, on Twitter by saying, ‘kind gesture of sending mangoes’ for welcoming him in Pakistan, he also added that the gift made his day ‘very special’ (Jamal, 2020). Ali Alizada, Azerbaijan’s Ambassador to Pakistan, urged people to ‘strengthen immunity’ against coronavirus by eating delicious Pakistani fruits like mangoes, cherries and peaches. Hamad Obaid Al-Zaabi, the United Arab Emirates’ (UAE) Ambassador to Pakistan, joined a big mango festival in Islamabad and expressed his likeness of Pakistani mangoes (Jamal, 2020).

Pakistan’s mango diplomacy is not limited to diplomats in Pakistan as Islamabad sends mango gifts to leaders abroad. In 2020, Prince Charles of the United Kingdom thanked President of Pakistan Arif Alvi for the gift of mangoes (The Express Tribune, 2020). In July 2021, a group of selected US lawmakers, officials, media personnel and scholars were invited to a mango festival and dinner at the residence of Asad Majeed Khan, the Ambassador of Pakistan to the United States (Iqbal, 2021). Australian Ambassador in Pakistan Geoffrey Shaw exhibited photos of him savouring Pakistani mangoes in a Pakistani style (Jamal, 2020).⁴ It has now become a common practice of diplomats in Pakistan to express their gratitude using Twitter after receiving mango gift boxes from Islamabad.

Pakistan’s mango diplomacy in South Asia however has not always received the same level of reception as outside of the region. In July 1977, General Zia-ul-Haq sent a crate of mangoes to Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka. From Islamabad through the Pakistan High Commission in Colombo, the mangoes were delivered to the Rosemead Place but the reaction from Bandaranaike was unexpected as the box was returned to the ambassador with the following note from Bandaranaike:

Your Excellency Mr Ambassador, Pakistani mangoes are well known for their taste and fragrance. Thank you for sending me this crate of mangoes on behalf of President General Zia ul Haq. However, I cannot accept a gift from a person whose hands have the blood of Pakistan’s elected Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto on them. He was not just the leader of Pakistan but a great spokesman for the Third World. Please return this gift to the sender. (Kalansooriya, 2015)

In the 1990s, when Prime Minister of Pakistan Nawaz Sharif sent crates of mangoes to President of Sri Lanka Maithree Sirisena, the story was different, albeit with the same outcome. After the clearance from the Sri Lankan customs and quarantine, the Presidential Secretariat refused to accept the gift. The decision of returning the mangoes was taken by the Foreign Ministry, according to the President’s Office (Kalansooriya, 2015). Then Colombo emphasised that the decision was purely based on technical reasons because of agricultural regulation as an agricultural official stated, ‘It is something beyond quarantine. We do not have systems like Singapore to counter insects that could come along with such fruits’ (Kalansooriya, 2015).

China is becoming a top market for Pakistan mangoes. It is not just because of the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) that the local mangoes are loved in China as there is a long history. Historical accounts mention Chairman Mao’s ‘golden mangoes’ from Pakistan (BBC, 2016). In 1968, Foreign Minister of Pakistan Mian Arshad Hussain visited China and gifted a box of mangoes to Chairman Mao, but mangoes were passed onto local university students:

The factory workers, called The Worker-Peasant Mao Zedong Thought Propaganda Team, were asked to intervene on the party’s behalf. Mangoes were sent to the worker-peasants as a gesture of Mao’s gratitude for their efforts and when the gift arrived at the campus, it was received with enthusiasm. People gathered around the precious fruit, singing with excitement. They had tears in their eyes. Mao might not have expected the transformation of mangoes into a near-divine symbol. Mangoes were seen as a tribute from the distant land, though no one knew that land was Pakistan. Murck states that workers stayed up late that night, eagerly touching and examining the mangoes – which they had never seen before. (Jamal, 2019)

Numerous varieties of mangoes are exported by Pakistan including Honey Gold, Sindhri, Chaunsa, Dasehri, Sonaro, Anwar Ratol and Langra. In July 2019, the shipment of 1030 kg of Pakistani Sindhri mango was sent to Urumqi in the Xinjiang province of China. The volume of mango exports to China is likely to increase as Islamabad is engaged in activities to promote its trade. An online summit was held on 30 March 2021 involving the Hongqiao Import Commodity Exhibition and Trading Center and the Trade Development Authority of Pakistan to discuss Pakistan’s mango exports to China. In this event, approximately 20 Chinese traders, retailers and distributors, and six Pakistani mango exporters met virtually. In 2021, it was expected that most mango traders of Pakistan would be able to enter the China market and the bilateral cooperation is facilitating the mango exports from Pakistan to China (Connor, 2021). The COVID-19 pandemic has not affected the demand for Pakistani mangoes in China as they exceeded the target of 80,000 metric tonnes in 2020 by exporting 140,000 metric tonnes (The News, 2021). Due to CPEC, the bilateral trade relations are continuously improving and now the Chinese Alibaba operates in Pakistan and people can buy Pakistani mangoes online from China and elsewhere.

The leadership of Pakistan and Bangladesh have sent each other gift packs of mangoes. President of Pakistan Dr Arif Alvi has sent gift packs of mangoes (king of fruits) to President of Bangladesh Abdul Hamid and Prime Minister Haseena Wajid. Earlier, Prime Minister Haseena Wajid also sent mangoes to Prime Minister Imran Khan. Every year during the mango season, Pakistan sends mangoes to various heads of state as a goodwill gesture and to promote Pakistani mangoes (The Nation, 2021). In 2021, Pakistan also sent mangoes to India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Afghanistan and other countries (Zafar, 2021). Seems to be inspired by the mango diplomacy of India and Pakistan, Dhaka has recently upscaled its mango diplomacy by sending boxes of its famous mango variety (Haribhanga) to leaders in South Asia and the Middle East. Dhaka sent Haribhanga to Bhutanese King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck and Prime Minister Lotay Tshering. Prime Minister Hasina of Bangladesh also gifted mangoes to leaders in Nepal, Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Bangladesh also sent Haribhanga to Oman, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait and Jordan (Palma, 2021). These gestures were well received but as Bangladesh is a newcomer in this area, its mango diplomacy strategy is not as extensive as is the case of Pakistan. Hence, there is little known about how Bangladesh’s mango diplomacy has been received beyond South Asia.

Conclusion

India and Pakistan are among the world’s top 10 mango exporters and have been engaged in mango diplomacy for decades. Bangladesh is a newcomer in terms of mango exports and mango diplomacy and therefore its mango diplomacy is not as organised as that of its two other South Asian competitors, that is, India and Pakistan. This could be purely due to economic reasons as India and Pakistan compete in terms of mango exports in Europe, North American and the Gulf region, therefore, their mango diplomacy is more focused on those regions. There are two parallel approaches in terms of mango diplomacy of India and Pakistan as both countries gift mangoes to selected foreign diplomats at home and to heads of states through their diplomatic missions in selected countries. While such gifts were always received well outside of South Asia, we see that many diplomats have been using social media to express their appreciation of mangoes from India and Pakistan. Based on the analysis, this study argues that Pakistan is the dominant South Asian actor in terms of mango diplomacy and has an extensive strategy to enhance its mango exports and goodwill internationally. As the second largest producer and exporter of mangoes from South Asia, Pakistan has a lot more to gain by investing in mango diplomacy as it competes with India in the international market. Bangladesh and India do not have proper mango diplomacy strategies but have been gifting mangoes to different heads of state. In terms of the reception of mango gifts, Pakistan has achieved more success as the receivers have passionately talked about their love of Pakistani mangoes and expressed their appreciation of Islamabad’s gestures through a variety of modes including Twitter.

In relation to the questions that this study aimed to answer, this study found that mango diplomacy plays a role in terms of not just increasing the selected countries’ goodwill, especially that of Pakistan, but also helping in terms of increasing mango exports. This is clear as mango exports of India and Pakistan have been growing. In most cases, mango diplomacy reflects the selected countries’ existing strong relations with other countries which is the case of Pakistan’s relationship with China. There is, however, a rare case of Bangladesh gifting mangoes to Pakistani leaders despite the recently troubled relationship between Dhaka and Islamabad. These are, however, early days to see if mango diplomacy can offer a serious breakthrough in the shape of meaningful cooperation between Bangladesh and Pakistan.

Footnotes

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Zahid Shahab Ahmed

Notes

Author biographies

Zahid Shahab Ahmed is a Research Fellow at the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalization, Deakin University, Australia. During 2013–2016, he was Assistant Professor at the Centre for International Peace and Stability, National University of Sciences and Technology in Pakistan. He has published extensively on Pakistan’s foreign relations. Among his publications is Regionalism and Regional Security in South Asia: The Role of SAARC (Routledge, 2013).

Muhammad Jahanzaib is a PhD Scholar of International Relations at the International Islamic University, Islamabad.

References

Abbas

(2020) Diplomats eating Pakistani mangoes in pure Pakistani style hits. Technology Times, 5 July. Available at: https://www.technologytimes.pk/2020/07/05/diplomats-eating-pakistani-mangoes-in-pure-pakistani-style-hits/ (accessed 20 October 2021).

Ahmad

(2021) Bangladesh 7th largest mango producer in the world. Dhaka Tribune, 18 July. Available at: https://www.dhakatribune.Com/business/economy/2021/07/18/bangladesh-is-top-10-in-global-mango-exporters (accessed 1 November 2021).

Ahmed

Zahoor

(2019) Bangladesh-Pakistan relations: hostage to a traumatic past. Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 57(1): 31–51.

Jazeera

(2019) How yoga diplomacy helps India assert its rising global influence. Al Jazeera, 21 June. Available at: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/6/21/how-yoga-diplomacy-helps-india-assert-its-rising-global-influence (accessed 20 October 2021).

Arjit

(2020) India’s public diplomacy in the twenty-first century: components, objectives and challenges. India Quarterly 76(1): 24–39.

Arun

(2017) India hopes to win Chinese hearts with mangoes. The Hindu, 14 May. Available at: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-hopes-to-win-chinese-hearts-with-mangoes/article18452867.ece (accessed 20 October 2021).

Associated Press (2010) Hillary adds to curious history of mango diplomacy. NDTV, 25 July. Available at: https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/hillary-adds-to-curious-history-of-mango-diplomacy-424977 (accessed 20 October 2021).

Baliyan

(2017) Export performance and competitiveness of Indian mango. Agricultural Situation in India 74(6): 19–26.

BBC (2016) China’s curious cult of the mango. BBC, February 11. Available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-35461265 (accessed 20 October 2021).

10.

Carp

(2007) Finally, America gets a taste of luscious Indian mangoes. The Mint, 3 May. Available at: https://www.livemint.com/Politics/ojpwjsf0JIN3HrbGIGtaoJ/Finally-America-gets-a-taste-of-luscious-Indian-mangoes.html (accessed 20 October 2021).

11.

Connor

(2021) Pakistani Mango Exports to China May Increase This Summer. Producer Report, 13 April. Available at: https://www.producereport.Com/article/pakistani-mango-exports-china-may-increase-summer (accessed 21 October 2021).

12.

Doctor

(2017) How India’s mango diplomacy has been winning friends and foes over the years. The Economic Times, 10 June. Available at: https://economictimes.indiatimes.Com/news/politics-and-nation/how-indias-mango-diplomacy-has-been-winning-friends-and-foes-over-the-years/articleshow/59076409.cms?from=mdr (accessed 22 October 2021).

13.

Freshplaza (2020) Pakistan plans to export 100,000 tons of mango to China this fiscal year. Freshplaza, 3 January. Available at: https://www.freshplaza.com/article/9176696/pakistan-plans-to-export-100-000-tons-of-mango-to-china-this-fiscal-year/

14.

Gupta

(2013) Soft power of the United States, China, and India: a comparative analysis. Indian Journal of Asian Affairs 26: 37–57.

15.

Hall

(2012) India’s new public diplomacy. Asian Survey 52(6): 1089–1110.

16.

Hanif

(2021) Govt extends date for mango export. The Express Tribune, 29 April. Available at: https://tribune.com.Pk/story/2297296/govt-extends-date-for-mango-export (accessed 24 October 2021).

17.

Hasan

(2021) Bangladesh PM Hasina’s meeting with Pakistani envoy has a message for India. South Asia Monitor, 28 October. Available at: https://www.southasiamonitor.org/spotlight/bangladesh-pm-hasinas-meeting-pakistani-envoy-has-message-india (accessed 28 October 2021).

18.

Hassan

(2021) Bangladesh-Pakistan’s mango diplomacy: what is next? Euro Asia Review, 29 July. Available at: https://www.eurasiareview.com/29072021-bangladesh-pakistans-mango-diplomacy-what-is-next-oped/ (accessed 20 October 2021).

19.

Hassan

Ahmed

(2021) Mango diplomacy is more than low-hanging fruit in South Asian politics. The Interpreter, 13 August. Available at: https://www.lowyinstitute.Org/the-interpreter/mango-diplomacy-more-low-hanging-fruit-south-asian-politics (accessed 20 October 2021).

20.

Hindustan Times (2007) US eager to eat Indian mangoes: bush. Hindustan Times, 2 March. Available at: https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/us-eager-to-eat-indian-mangoes-bush/story-Wg0EMcDB1L8xaIWOl19neO.html (accessed 20 October 2021).

21.

Huang

Wang

(2020) ‘Panda engagement’ in China’s digital public diplomacy. Asian Journal of Communication 30(2): 118–140.

22.

Iqbal

(2021) In COVID era, Pakistan turns to mango diplomacy in the US. Dawn, 16 July. Available at: https://www.dawn.com/news/1635206 (accessed 20 October 2021).

23.

Isar

(2017) Cultural diplomacy: India does it differently. International Journal of Cultural Policy 23(6): 705–716.

24.

Jamal

(2019) How a Pakistan minister’s gift to Mao turned the mango into a divine symbol in China. Scroll, 16 January. Available at: https://scroll.in/article/909584/how-a-pakistan-ministers-gift-to-mao-turned-the-mango-into-a-divine-symbol-in-china (accessed 20 October 2021).

25.

Jamal

(2020) Diplomats fascinated by Pakistan mangoes, share fondness on social media. Gulf News, 4 July. Available at: https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/pakistan/diplomats-fascinated-by-pakistan-mangoes-share-fondness-on-social-media-1.72409709 (accessed 20 October 2021).

26.

Kalansooriya

(2015) Pakistan’s Mango Diplomacy Hit by Lanka’s Insect Fear. Colombo Telegraph, 31 July. Available at: https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.Php/pakistans-mango-diplomacy-hit-by-lankas-insect-fear/ (accessed 20 October 2021).

27.

Kousar

Sadaf

Makhdum

MSA

, et al. (2019) Competitiveness of Pakistan’s selected fruits in the world market. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture 35(4): 1175–1184.

28.

Pacher

(2017) China’s panda diplomacy. The Diplomat, 2 November. Available at: https://thediplomat.com/2017/11/chinas-panda-diplomacy/ (accessed 20 October 2021).

29.

Palma

(2021) Bangladesh sends mangoes to Asian friends. The Daily Star, 5 July. Available at: https://www.thedailystar.Net/news/bangladesh/news/bangladesh-sends-mangoes-asian-friends-2123471 (accessed 1 November 2021).

30.

Saima

(2019) Middle East emerges as top importer of Pakistani mangoes in 2019. Arab News, 30 September. Available at: https://www.arabnews.com/node/1561386/pakistan (accessed 1 November 2021).

31.

Sarkar

(2019) The prospects for export of mangoes. The Financial Express, 28 June. Available at: https://www.thefinancialexpress.com.Bd/views/the-prospects-for-export-of-mangoes-1561389902 (accessed 1 November 2021).

32.

Statista Research Department (2020) Production volume of mango across India from financial year 2012 to 2019, with an estimate for 2020. Statista Research Department, 22 October. Available at: https://www.statista.Com/statistics/1039683/india-production-volume-of-mango/ (accessed 1 November 2021).

33.

The Economic Times (2007) Indian mangoes land in US after 18 years. The Economic Times, 2 May. Available at: https://economictimes.indiatimes.Com/industry/cons-products/food/indian-mangoes-land-in-us-after-18-years/articleshow/1993320.cms?from=mdr (accessed 1 November 2021).

34.

The Express Tribune (2020) Mango diplomacy. The Express Tribune, 10 October. Available at: https://tribune.com.Pk/story/2267810/mango-diplomacy (accessed 1 November 2021).

35.

The Nation (2020) Pakistan exports 125,000 tonnes of mangoes despite stiff challenges. The Nation, 23 August. Available at: https://nation.com.pk/23-Aug-2020/pakistan-exports-125-000-tonnes-of-mangoes-despite-stiff-challenges (accessed 1 November 2021).

36.

The Nation (2021) Pakistan, BD send mango gifts to each other. The Nation, 4 August. Available at: https://nation.com.pk/04-Aug-2021/pakistan-bd-send-mango-gifts-to-each-other (accessed 1 November 2021).

37.

The New York Times (1984) When gifts demand subtle high diplomacy. The New York Times, 4 February. Available at: https://www.nytimes.Com/1984/02/04/us/when-gifts-demand-subtle-high-diplomacy.html (accessed 1 November 2021).

38.

The News (2018) PM Imran Khan deposits precious watch gifted by Saudi Crown Prince. The News, 15 November. Available at: https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/394146-pm-imran-khan-deposits-precious-watch-gifted-by-saudi-crown-prince (accessed 1 November 2021).

39.

The News (2021) Pakistan looks at China for boosting mango industry. The News, 10 July. Available at: https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/861928-pakistan-looks-at-china-for-boosting-mango-industry (accessed 1 November 2021).

40.

Wang

(2008) The conception of soft power and its policy implications: a comparative study of China and Taiwan. Journal of Contemporary China 17(56): 425–447.

41.

Weinstein

Rasool

(2020) US diplomacy in Pakistan: the case of the missing mangoes. The Diplomat, 30 July. Available at: https://thediplomat.com/2020/07/us-diplomacy-in-pakistan-the-case-of-the-missing-mangoes/ (accessed 1 November 2021).

42.

World’s Richest Countries (2017) Top mangoes importers 2017. Available at: http://www.worldsrichestcountries.com/top_mango_importers.html (accessed 22 October 2021).

43.

Zafar

(2021) FO sending mangoes for heads of over 32 countries. The News, 10 June. Available at: https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/847404-fo-sending-mangoes-for-heads-of-over-32-countries (accessed 1 November 2021).

44.

Zang

(2020) Pakistani mangos surpass 2020 export target. Produce Report, 15 September. Available at: https://www.producereport.Com/article/pakistani-mangos-surpass-2020-export-target (accessed 1 November 2021).