A Preliminary Examination of African American and Caucasian Hospitality Management Student Perceptions and Attitudes Toward Diversity Issues

Abstract

Diversity or multiculturalism is a concept that includes words such as acceptance and respect. A movement toward diversity should include the examination of differences in a safe, cultivating, and constructive environment. One such environment is classrooms located on college and university campuses across the United States. The purpose of this study was to examine a cross-section of hospitality management students based on their ethnicity. A self-selected convenience sample of students were used with data being collected using a paper-and-pencil survey measuring attitudes and perceptions toward various diversity concepts. It was found that differences existed between the two ethnic groups around specific concepts of workplace equity.

Keywords

diversity multicultural diversity attitudes diversity perceptions cross-cultural comparison

Introduction and Review of Literature

Diversity issues toward African Americans have been the source of great pain and inspiration within the United States (Rivera, 2010). Based on government statistics, when African Americans are compared to Caucasians in the United States in areas such as income, employment, and education, it appears that African Americans have a harder time dealing with the current cultural landscape than their Caucasian counterparts (American Psychological Association, 2013; Gary, 1995). Despite those hardships, many individuals in the United States still find themselves celebrating the election and re-election of its first African American President. However significant this event is to the United States image of embracing diversity, there are still many individuals still wondering whether the United States has truly become a society that embraces diversity. Based on the research conducted by Dimock, Kiley, and Suls (2013), there are still many individuals who feel that the United States has work to do in many areas, especially when it comes to issues of diversity between African Americans and Caucasians.

Approximately 27% of African Americans and 11% of Caucasians who participated in the study conducted by the Pew Research Center feel that the United States has made little to no progress toward racial equality over the last 50 years since Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” speech in 1963 (Dimock et al., 2013). Of the participants who feel improvements still need to be accomplished, approximately 79% of African Americans and 44% of Caucasians feel a lot needs to be done to level the playing field (Dimock et al., 2013). The Martin Luther King “I Have A Dream” speech was chosen due to the significance of the event in bringing inequality issues to the forefront (Dimock et al., 2013). This difference in equality is also expressed when comparing African Americans (32%) to Caucasians (48%) regarding their perceptions about actions currently taking place to “level the playing field” in America. Another disturbing finding of the Pew Research Center was that 25% of African Americans and 16% of Caucasians surveyed felt that their respective groups do not get along with one another (Dimock et al., 2013).

The overall feeling of racial inequality may be attributed to African Americans feeling a level of inequality in the areas of income, employment, and education. Over the last 40 years, African Americans have consistently dealt with earning less than their Caucasian counterparts in the United States (Dimock et al., 2013; Hoover & Yaya, 2010). The difference in earnings may be attributed to African Americans having a tougher time in the job market. Unemployment rates among African Americans are approximately twice as high when compared to Caucasians (Couch & Fairlie, 2010; Dimock et al., 2013). African Americans were also hired less often and fired more often during various periods of the business cycle (Couch & Fairlie, 2010). Educationally, African Americans and Caucasians also have a gap that favors Caucasians. The Pew Research Report (Dimock et al., 2013) indicates that African Americans and Caucasians have the same high school graduation rate, but at the collegiate level, Caucasians who are 25 and older have a higher rate of degree (34%) completion compared to African Americans (21%). There is also a difference in attitude among African Americans and Caucasians when it comes to education. Based on the findings of Palmer and Maramba (2011), the achievement gap at the post-secondary level may be explained using the “acting White” theory, which suggests that higher education and achievement is a “White” characteristic, and leads African Americans away from achieving academically because of the criticism they may face from peers. Other research suggests (Farley, 1993; Robinson, 2000) that discrimination against African Americans in the educational arena results in African Americans obtaining an inferior education and qualifications, which results in fewer jobs and earning opportunities.

With so many differences existing between these two ethnic groups in the areas of income, employment, and education, it is easy to see how African Americans have developed resentment toward Caucasians; however, there also appears to be a natural dislike Caucasians have toward African Americans. This dislike toward one another could be explained using the three levels of prejudice (Gorski, 2008; 2012). The initial level of prejudice is the cognitive level. The cognitive level revolves around stereotypes that are often exaggerated and incorrect. The second level centers on emotions. These emotions can be negative or positive in nature. Negative feelings typically induced are fright, trepidation, and caution. The final level is behavioral. Behaviors are engaged based on prejudice and create the feeling of racism.

In an effort to lower the level of resentment or dislike toward different ethnic groups, many organizations and institutions of higher learning are implementing programs to increase diversity awareness. Diversity is a concept which has many levels of understanding and includes words such as acceptance and respect. Diversity relates to a respect for individuals from different walks of life such as race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, age, physical ability, religious beliefs, political affiliation, or any other sociocultural aspect that may make us different from one another. Educational institutions are organizations that have historically and continously attempt to facilitate the diversity understanding movement through its implementation of various diversity initiatives and curriculum adjustments (Brown-Glaude, 2008; Clark, 2011).

Multicultural education has been investigated for over 30 years (Rivera, 2010). The idea of multicultural education centers on the concept that justice and equality should be afforded to all as based on various U.S. government documents (Young, 2003). Within the discipline of multicultural education, there are many different opinions as to what actually constitutes multicultural education. There are some definitions that suggest that a simple adjustment of the curriculum to include underrepresented groups makes a curriculum diverse. Other suggestions include focusing on the teacher’s attitudes versus the students’ attitudes and vice versa (Gorski, 2008). Regardless of the approach, however, there is one unifying factor. All the definitions of multicultural education discuss the goal of facilitating a transformation of society’s way of thinking toward individuals that are different from one another. A key aspect of multicultural education should also be to measure the effect the curriculum has on students’ viewpoints toward diversity issues.

Even with many political figures and upper-level administrators at colleges and universities supporting the idea that the United States has embraced diversity and multicultural concepts, there are still some skeptics who believe that students are rejecting the notion of diversity on college campuses. There appears to be a large contingent of scholars and practitioners who reject diversity education, claiming that it has a lack of usefulness (Ervin, 2001). Their rationale included (a) Caucasian students feeling that it delivers an anti-White tone and promotes a system that favors minorities or people of color (Gomez, 1992; Lopez, Holliman, & Peng, 1995) and (b) African American students feeling that they are constantly having to educate their Caucasian colleagues on the importance of diversity education (Cage, 1995).

Statement of the Purpose

The purpose of this study was to examine whether a difference exists in student perceptions about diversity issues based on their race. In order to investigate the purpose of this study, the following research questions were posed:

Research Question 1: Do hospitality management students’ attitudes and perceptions toward multicultural legal issues differ based on their race?

Research Question 2: Do hospitality management students’ attitudes and perceptions of knowledge of multicultural concepts differ based on their race?

Research Question 3: Do hospitality management students’ attitudes and perceptions toward procedural and conditional knowledge differ based on their race?

Research Question 4: Do hospitality management students’ attitudes and perceptions toward various multicultural concerns such as Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and affirmative action differ based on their race?

Hypotheses for the research questions are as follows:

Hypothesis 1: African American students will have a higher mean score related to multicultural legal issues.

Hypothesis 2: African American students will have a higher mean score related to multicultural concept knowledge.

Hypothesis 3: African American students will have a higher mean score related to multicultural procedural and conditional knowledge.

Hypothesis 4: African American students will have a higher level of diversity awareness related to various multicultural concerns.

Method

Study Design

The population of interest for this study was young African American and Caucasian college students who major in hospitality management. The sampling method utilized was a self-selected convenience sample of Caucasian hospitality management students enrolled at predominantly Caucasian colleges/universities (PCCUs) and African American hospitality management students enrolled at historically Black colleges/universities (HBCUs).

Instrument

The survey for this study was the Multicultural Assessment Survey developed by Harvey and Allard (2009). The survey was designed to measure individuals’ perceptions and knowledge in four content areas: (a) multicultural laws, and legal and ethical issues; (b) multicultural concept knowledge; (c) multicultural procedural and conditional knowledge; and (d) checking personal diversity awareness with multicultural concerns.

The first section of the survey contains one question asking individuals to self-report their overall knowledge of multicultural laws, and legal and ethical issues. The second component of the survey contains six statements measuring students’ perceptions toward concepts such as the formation and impact of stereotypes, and their understanding of how one’s own culture affects behaviors and interactions with various organizations. The third section of the survey contains six statements examining students’ perceptions toward having a certain skill set or behaving in a certain way in specific situations. Examples include identifying potential gains from promoting a diverse workforce and intercultural or international communication skills. The final section of the survey includes 10 statements designed to measure students’ perceptions about issues such as affirmative action, EEOC laws, and whether they create an unfair advantage for underrepresented racial and other groups.

The multicultural assessment by Harvey and Allard (2009) contained 23 items that measure the four content areas using Likert-type scales measuring from 1 to 5. For each of the items on the survey, a value of 1 indicates an individual’s belief that they had no knowledge or strongly disagreed with the statement provided in that particular content area. A value of 5 indicated that the respondents perceived themselves as having expert knowledge or strongly agreed with the statement. A total score can be calculated for the three content areas with multiple statements. The survey also contained demographic items including educational classification, ethnicity, gender, and past diversity course enrollment.

Data Collection

The survey was delivered to each student registered and in attendance during data collection in hospitality management classes at both the HBCU and PCCU. The data collection process involved delivering a scripted presentation to prospective respondents. The scripted presentation included (a) informing the students that participation was voluntary, (b) the purpose of the project, (c) identification of individuals conducting the research project, and (d) a time estimate for completion of the survey. In an effort to obtain truthful responses to the statements on the survey, students were asked to not put any identifying information or marks on the survey. After the scripted presentation was delivered, the survey was handed to students. Upon completion of the survey, students were thanked for their participation in the study.

Analysis

In order to obtain an overall view of the data provided by the sampled population, descriptive statistics were employed. The descriptive statistics examined included means and standard deviations of the four content areas as well as variables that make up the composite content area scales. Cronbach’s alpha was conducted to determine the overall reliability of the survey and its individual topic areas (Rivera, 2010). In order to address the research questions, ANOVA and MANOVA were conducted to determine whether a mean difference existed between the two student groupings about their perceptions and attitudes toward various multicultural concepts and topics.

Findings

A total of 119 surveys were administered between the two universities. A total of 31 surveys were administered to students enrolled at the HBCU and 88 surveys were distributed to students enrolled at the PCCU. After reviewing the returned surveys for major and ethnicity, all 31 of the surveys from the HBCU and 47 of the surveys from the PCCU were determined to be usable. The overall response rate was 65.5%, which is considered acceptable. The four content areas of the survey instrument consisted of 23 variables for the usable sample of 78 students from the two universities. The majority of the usable surveys were from students registered at the PCCU (60.3%). The majority of respondents were female (64.1%) and 80.8% had not taken a diversity issues course in the past. Most respondents were Caucasian (60.3%), followed by 38.5% African Americans and 1.2% “other.” The educational classifications were relatively evenly distributed between all groups; however, 33.3% of participants were sophomores. Table 1 displays the complete demographic breakdown of the participants from this study.

Table 1.

Demographic Characteristics of HBCU and PCCU Hospitality Management Student Participants (n = 78).

Trait	Number	%
Gender
Female	50	64.1
Male	28	35.9
Ethnicity
African American	30	38.5
American Indian or Alaskan Native	0	0
Asian or Pacific Islander	0	0
Caucasian	47	60.3
Hispanic/Latino	0	0
Other	1	1.2
Education
Freshman	17	21.8
Sophomore	26	33.3
Junior	23	29.5
Senior	12	15.4
Diversity class
No	63	80.8
Yes	15	19.2
Location
HBCU	31	39.7
PCCU	47	60.3

HBCU = historically Black colleges/universities; PCCU = predominantly Caucasian colleges/universities.

Means were calculated for each of the 23 statements and three content areas by racial group. The means are displayed in Table 2. The mean differences for the 23 statements were all positive with the exception of two statements: (a) attitudes and perceptions toward the most qualified applicant usually getting the job (African American 3.52; Caucasian 3.57) and (b) it being only a matter of time before women and minorities are equally represented in senior management of large corporations (African American 3.48; Caucasian 3.62). These two statements received higher ratings from Caucasian students.

Table 2.

Means, Standard Deviations, and Mean Differences for the Multicultural Assessment Survey African American (N = 31) and Caucasian (N = 48).

	M		SD		Mean difference (AA − Cauc)
	AA	Cauc	AA	Cauc	Mean difference (AA − Cauc)
Laws, and legal and ethical issues	3.10	2.77	0.944	0.786	0.33
Concept knowledge
Awareness	3.26	2.94	0.815	0.870	0.32
Cultural behaviors	3.65	3.19	0.877	0.770	0.46
Impact of stereotypes	3.90	3.55	0.908	0.802	0.35
Psychological theories	3.48	2.81	1.029	0.825	0.67^a
One’s own culture	3.97	3.62	0.752	0.795	0.35
Changing workplace	3.77	3.09	1.055	0.952	0.68^a
Total	22.03	19.19	4.00	3.62	2.84^a
Procedural and conditional knowledge
Potential gains	3.74	3.21	0.965	0.832	0.53
Management style	3.74	2.91	0.893	0.974	0.83^a
Critical analysis	3.16	2.34	1.036	1.027	0.82^a
Communication skills	3.48	2.45	1.029	0.880	1.03^a
Ethical behavior	4.42	3.45	0.923	0.928	0.97^a
Business case	3.68	2.87	0.945	0.969	0.81^a
Total	22.23	17.23	4.36	4.44	5.00^a
Checking personal perceptions
Treat coworkers	4.77	4.64	.497	0.529	0.13
Affirmative action	3.29	3.13	1.101	0.947	0.16
Sexual orientation	3.45	3.36	1.091	1.342	0.09
Qualified applicant	3.52	3.57	1.029	0.827	−0.05
Motivation to stay in job	3.68	3.66	0.979	0.939	0.02
Women salaries	2.90	2.87	1.274	1.096	0.03
Minorities & women	3.48	3.62	1.029	0.822	−0.14
Diverse workforce	3.26	3.02	1.00	0.675	0.24
Prejudice against groups	4.52	3.21	0.890	0.977	1.31^a
Disabilities Act	3.68	3.02	0.945	0.796	0.66^a
Total	36.55	34.11	5.30	4.43	2.44^a

AA = African American; Cauc = Caucasian.

Indicates statistically significant differences between African American and Caucasian Students.

Total scores were also calculated by summing the statements in the three content areas. Overall, the total scores for each content area were rated higher by the African American student participants, with the smallest difference being found in the checking personal perceptions content area.

Reliability analysis of the survey instrument was assessed using Cronbach’s coefficient alpha. Table 3 displays Cronbach’s coefficient alpha values for three of the four content areas. Laws, legal, and ethical issues were not analyzed because this section consisted of a single question. Of the other content areas, only the checking personal perceptions section (.637) of the survey did not meet the desired minimal alpha coefficient of .70. This suggests that further examination of this content area might need to be conducted and additional items developed. The alpha coefficients for the areas of concept knowledge (.839) and procedural and conditional knowledge (.897) were acceptable.

Table 3.

Coefficient Alpha Reliabilities of the Multicultural Assessment Survey (n = 78).

		Items
Content area	Type	Number	Score range	α
Law, and legal and ethical issues	Likert	1	1-5	—
Concept knowledge	Likert	6	6-30	.839
Procedural and conditional knowledge	Likert	6	6-30	.897
Personal perceptions	Likert	10	10-50	.673

Results for Content Areas

ANOVA was conducted to evaluate the differences between the means for African American and Caucasian student attitudes and perceptions of laws, and legal and ethical issues revolving around diversity management. The results of the ANOVA were not significant, F(1, 76) = 2.82, p = .097. The strength of the relationship between the dependent and independent variables was relatively weak. The η² value suggests that only 3.6% of the variance in the dependent variable is attributed to the independent variable.

A MANOVA was conducted to analyze the remaining content sections of the survey. The initial analysis conducted examined the content area of multicultural concept knowledge. A significant difference was found (Wilks’s λ = .84), F(6, 71) = 2.23, p = .05. The multivariate η² (.159) suggests that a moderate relationship exists between the dependent and independent variables. ANOVA was conducted on each of the dependent variables as a follow-up to the significant MANOVA. Using a Bonferroni adjustment, each ANOVA was tested at the .008 level (.05/6 dependent variables). The ANOVA resulted in a significant difference between African American and Caucasian students for two statements. In two cases, the students’ self-assessments of their knowledge of theories of prejudice and discrimination of their knowledge of how to deal with the changing workplace, which includes managing a diverse workforce, were significantly different.

The second MANOVA analyzed the area of multicultural procedural and conditional knowledge. A multivariate significant difference was found (Wilks’s λ = .68), F(6, 71) = 5.59, p < .01. The multivariate η² suggests a relatively strong relationship with a value of .32. The ANOVA conducted using a Bonferroni adjustment (.05/6 dependent variables) was tested at the .008 level of significance. All variables in this section of the survey were found to be significantly different, except for the statement that measures students’ self-perception of their ability to identify potential gains from managing a diverse workforce.

The final MANOVA conducted analyzed the area of diversity awareness with multicultural concerns. A multivariate significant difference was found (Wilks’s λ = .62), F(10, 67) = 4.05, p < .01. The multivariate η² suggests a relatively strong relationship with a value of .38. The MANOVA analysis, including a Bonferroni adjustment (.05/10 dependent variables), was tested at the .005 level of significance. The means for two variables were found to be significantly different. These variables were related to the topic areas of (a) not being prejudiced against other groups and (b) disabled workers are being hired in proportion to their numbers in the general population because of the Americans with Disabilities Act.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to determine whether differences existed among African American and Caucasian Hospitality Management students regarding attitudes and perceptions of workplace diversity. Four research questions were proposed. The first research question was to identify the significantly different attitudes and perceptions toward legal and ethical issues of diversity between African American and Caucasian students. Based on the results, an ANOVA indicated that student perceptions of legal and ethical issues related to diversity issues were not different based on race. There was a gap in students’ perceptions of their knowledge of laws, and legal and ethical issues related to diversity. As hypothesized, there was a higher mean score among African American respondents compared to Caucasian respondents. This gap could be attributed to a number of factors. Factors include but are not limited to (a) incarceration rates of African Americans compared to Caucasians in the United States, (b) unemployment and pay rates of African Americans compared to Caucasians in the United States, and (c) the need to still have EEOC regulations in place to ensure that African Americans receive an equal chance in the workplace. As a result of these situations, many African Americans may feel that to be treated equitably they need to have a higher level of understanding of these issues. Despite the fact that the gap was not statistically significant, it is still important to notice the gap and see it as a sign of potential issues that could be magnified when these two ethnic groups enter the same workforce.

The second research question focused on students’ perceptions about their knowledge of multicultural concepts. Using the MANOVA, and subsequent ANOVA, only two areas were found to be significantly different. The two areas of difference were psychological theories and the changing workplace with respect to diversity issues. African American students felt that they had a larger or increased level of knowledge. It should also be noted, however, that a gap existed in the other four variables used to measure knowledge of multicultural concepts. The other four areas where African American students felt they had a higher level of awareness and knowledge were (a) overall awareness, (b) cultural behaviors, (c) impact of stereotypes, and (d) understanding one’s own culture. With a gap in knowledge of the multicultural concept areas, further investigation of these differences should be explored to help prevent workplace equity issues occurring when these two groups enter the same workforce.

The third research question examined students’ knowledge of procedures and conditions related to multicultural issues. In all but one of the variables, African Americans perceived themselves as having more knowledge of the procedures needed to deal with diversity situations and issues. In the area where a significant difference did not occur, the mean score was still higher for African American students. This variable concerned knowledge of the potential gains of implementing diversity initiatives within an organization. This result suggested that African American students as a whole feel that they have a better understanding of the conditions and procedures that should be followed in order to capitalize on the potential gains of a diverse workforce. The other variables used to measure the students’ knowledge of multicultural procedures and conditions of diversity were (a) management style, (b) critical analysis, (c) communication skills, (d) ethical behavior, and (e) making a business case for diversity. The African American students felt that they were better equipped with knowledge required to create an environment conducive to embracing diversity.

The results found in this area present potential workplace issues when these two ethnic groups are present in the same workforce. A specific example of how this can cause an issue is with interactions that occur between supervisory and front line employee positions. Minorities are typically underrepresented in supervisory positions such as senior management, mid-level management, and other upper-level supervisory positions. These supervisory positions typically set the tone for an organization in a number of areas including multicultural initiatives. If that individual is Caucasian and perceived to not have the same level of multicultural awareness as the front line workers who are African American, resentment can occur between these groups causing dysfunction within the workplace.

The fourth research question examined awareness of each cohort regarding multicultural concerns. The 10 topics used to measure participant’s attitudes and perceptions were (a) how you treat coworkers, (b) affirmative action giving minorities and women equal opportunity in the job market, (c) sexual orientation being a matter of choice, (d) most qualified applicant getting the job, (e) what motivates you to stay in job, (f) gender equality with salaries, (g) minorities and women represented in upper-level management positions in large corporations, (h) ease of diversity workforce integration, (i) not being prejudiced against any group, and (j) the Americans With Disabilities Act helping to level the playing field. The two variables where significant differences occurred were (a) not being prejudiced against other groups and (b) the Americans With Disabilities Act leveling the playing field. African American students reported at a much higher mean (4.52) than their Caucasian (3.21) counterparts that they were not prejudiced against other groups.

This result presents a major difference and concern. This presents a major concern because equity issues in the workplace between African American and Caucasians could magnify in intensity based on Caucasians being prejudiced against certain groups. These prejudices could lead to increased levels of workplace dissatisfaction and create a dysfunctional working environment. This finding supports the data presented by the Pew Research Report (Dimock et al., 2013) where 25% of Blacks and 16% of Whites said that these two groups do not get along well. This could present a potential problem in the workplace and has implications for diverse workforces.

The second variable (Americans With Disabilities Act) with significant differences indicated that Caucasians in this study on average felt less in agreement with the statement that the Americans With Disabilities Act is helping to level the playing field as individuals with disabilities are represented proportionately in the workplace.

Of the 10 variables used to measure the study participants’ attitudes and perceptions toward various multicultural concerns, 8 were found to be not statistically significant. Six of the 8 variables had a higher overall mean score among African Americans than Caucasians. The 6 variables where a higher mean score was reported were (a) how to treat coworkers, (b) affirmative action giving an advantage to women and minorities, (c) sexual orientation being a matter of choice, (d) motivations to stay in a job, (e) women’s salaries being equal, and (f) integration of diverse workforce being easy. The largest difference between means was for the variable related to affirmative action giving women and minorities an equal opportunity in obtaining employment. This variable coupled with the overall lower average responses of African Americans to the statements that the most qualified applicant gets the job (African American 3.52; Caucasian 3.57) and it being only a matter of time before women and minorities are represented in upper-level management (African Americans 3.48; Caucasians, 3.62) led the researchers to believe that further investigation beyond this preliminary study may be needed. This is because slight evidence exists that African American students feel they are at a disadvantage with regard to equality in the workplace. These findings are supported by Pew Research Report (Dimock et al., 2013) and the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (2014), which found that African Americans have higher unemployment rates, earn less income, and lower percentages are employed in higher management positions. The Pew Research Report (Dimock et al., 2013) also found that there is a decreased level of optimism in those areas among African Americans when compared to 5 years ago.

Research Implications and Limitations

College-level hospitality management programs prepare managers for the hospitality industry. The hospitality industry is one of the largest employers of minority workers in the United States. With the landscape of the hospitality industry becoming more global and diverse in nature, it could be a considerable competitive advantage for a hospitality organization to have a better understanding of its customer base, as well as its employees. If a hospitality management organization is able to gain a better understanding of its workforce’s attitudes and perceptions toward various diversity issues, it could create a positive work environment, which leads to decreased employee turnover. With decreased turnover, a hospitality organization will have better trained employees who are able to deliver better customer service. Having a better understanding of employee’s attitudes and perceptions of diversity issues could help formulate better training programs. These enhanced programs may create meaningful diversity interactions resulting in a truly accepting diverse workplace. An example of the number of interactions that may take place between African Americans and Caucasians in the workplace is displayed in a report by the Multicultural Foodservice and Hospitality Alliance (2009), who reported that approximately 13% of restaurant workers are African American and 64% are Caucasian. Creating a cohesive and accepting workforce could also lead to improved customer interactions based on an organization’s display of diversity awareness to their customer base by having a diverse workforce.

Having a diverse workforce could help increase an organization’s standing within the local community in which it operates. These potential changes could lead to better customer interactions and increased profitability for the hospitality operation. A competitive advantage could be obtained through increased customer loyalty based on diversity understanding and awareness of its consumer base. Understanding the diversity of your customer base could also lead to increased revenues. Based on the buying power report produced by the Multicultural Foodservice and Hospitality Alliance (2009), Asian Americans had an estimated buying power of US$528 billion, African Americans had a buying power of US$965 billion, and Hispanic/Latinos had a buying power of US$992 billion. The Multicultural Foodservice and Hospitality Alliance report suggests that having a great understanding of diversity could result in an increased revenue stream due to the increased understanding of cultural differences of both a workforce and the customer base.

This research project does have limitations to be offered. The study used a convenience sampling method with classes at two universities. This sampling method lends itself to biases, including that not everyone in the population of interest has the same probability of being selected for this study, which results in a non-representative sample. The use of a convenience sample also limits the generalizability of the study. Additionally, the study focused on using young adult college students currently enrolled in classes and not individuals currently working. This situation could result in a number of biases occurring such as cooperative subject effect, uncooperative subject effect, evaluation apprehension, and faithful subjects effect (Kirk, 1995). Another limitation was that all African American students were recruited from a HBCU and all Caucasian students were recruited from a PCCU. This is a limitation based on the potential impact of cultural encapsulation. Cultural encapsulation is described by Bucher (2008) as the absence of interaction with different cultures beyond your own. This limited interaction results in information that is obtained about other groups to be inaccurate and causes stereotypes and prejudices to occur.

Diversity issue courses can assist with lowewring the impact of cultural encapsulation by introducing various cultural concepts and having students engage in difficult dialogues. The study conducted by Rivera (2010) found that students’ diversity perceptions and awareness increased as a whole pre and post course evaluation. The results of that study provided preliminary data that individuals enrolled in a diversity issues course can change their views of other cultures. This could be an essential piece of the puzzle for Caucasian students. In this study it was found that Caucasian students on average had less agreement with various diversity issues statements than their African American counterparts. By engaging in diversity issues courses Caucasian students may increase their understanding of diversity issues impeding the progress of African Americans by eliminating some of the negative impacts of cultural encapsulation.

Future Research

Future research possibilities related to individual attitudes and perceptions toward various diversity issues could include moving from a convenience sampling technique to a more rigorous sampling technique. Future research could also include additional colleges and universities that offer hospitality management programs. Other research options may also include examining the attitudes and perceptions of various ethnic groups and comparing their attitudes and perceptions toward workplace equity across various cultures.

Another approach may involve examining minority student perceptions about workplace equity issues at HBCU and PCCU. This type of research project would involve several approaches. An initial approach would involve sampling Caucasian students enrolled at HBCUs and PCCUs and comparing their responses on diversity and workplace equity to determine whether differences exist based on university attended. A second approach would involve sampling African American students enrolled at HBCUs and PCCUs and comparing responses based on university attended. A third approach would involve sampling Caucasian students enrolled at HBCUs and comparing their attitudes and perceptions of workplace equity to African American students enrolled at HBCUs to see whether increased interactions with a different group create a greater awareness and understanding of workplace equity issues. Implementing these types of methodological adjustments may shed some light on African American and Caucasian student attitudes and perceptions toward diversity issues and workplace equity. The insights that may be obtained from these projects may aid organizations in developing programs that adequately address the concerns of their African American workforce.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

David Rivera Jr., PhD, is currently an associate professor within the School of Hospitality Leadership, which is housed in the College of Human Ecology at East Carolina University. He has been a faculty member at East Carolina University (ECU) for over 9 years, and his research interest includes diversity issues in management and consumer behavior in hospitality management with an emphasis in the food and beverage sector of the industry.

Steven R. Lonis-Shumate, PhD, is currently an associate professor within the Department of Hospitality Management, which is housed in the College of Business and Information Science at Tuskegee University. He has been a faculty member at Tuskegee for over 6 years, and his research interest includes emotional intelligence and human resource management.

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