Cross-cultural theories of individualism and collectivism have stimulated the development of the personal constructs of independence and interdependence to help us understand the working out of their cultural dynamics. To delineate the contributions of both personal or independent and interpersonal or interdependent predictors of depressive symptomatology, this study assessed self-efficacy and relationship harmony (peer and family) among adolescents in Hong Kong and the United States. By applying both level- and structure- oriented techniques, the authors tested cultural differences in the levels of the constructs and their linkage across gender and culture. The path leading from self-efficacy to depressed symptoms was significantly stronger for American adolescents than for Hong Kong adolescents, whereas the path of relationship harmony was statistically equivalent across the two cultures. Both pathways supplemented one another in their effects on depressive symptomatology in both cultures, underscoring the importance of managing both agency and communion in promoting psychological health.
Allen, J. P., Hauser, S. T., Eickholt, C., Bell, K. L., & O’Connor, T. G. (1994). Autonomy and relatedness in family interactions as predictors of expressions of negative adolescent affect. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4, 535-552.
2.
Anderson, C. (1999). Attributional style, depression, and loneliness: A cross-cultural comparison of American and Chinese students. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 482-499.
3.
Arnett, J. J. (1999). Adolescent storm and stress, reconsidered. American Psychologist, 54, 317-326.
4.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
5.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
6.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
7.
Bandura, A., Pastorelli, C., Barbaranelli, C., & Caprara, G. V. (1999). Self-efficacy pathways to childhood depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 258-269.
8.
Barbopoulos, A., Fisharah, F., Clark, J. M., & El-Khatib, A. (2002). Comparison of Egyptian and Canadian children on a picture apperception test. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 8, 395-403.
9.
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for the Beck Depression Inventory (2nd ed.). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation, Harcourt, Brace.
10.
Beck, A. T., Ward, C. M., Mendelson, M., Mock, J. E., & Erbaugh, J. K. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561-571.
11.
Bentler, P. M. (1995). EQS: Structural Equations Program manual. Encino, CA: Multivariate Software.
12.
Bierbrauer, G., Meyer, H., & Wolfradt, U. (1994). Measurement of normative and evaluative aspects in individualistic and collectivistic orientations: The Cultural Orientation Scale (COS). In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S. C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications (pp. 189-199). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
13.
Buhrmester, D. (1990). Intimacy of friendship, interpersonal competence, and adjustment during preadolescence and adolescence. Child Development, 61, 1101-1111.
14.
Burns, D. D., Sayers, S. L., & Moras, K. (1994). Intimate relationships and depression: Is there a causal connection?Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 1033-1043.
15.
Byrne, B. M. (1994). Structural equation modeling with EQS and EQS/Windows: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
16.
Byrne, B. M., Shavelson, R. J., & Muthen, B. (1989). Testing for the equivalence of factor covariance and mean structures: The issue of partial measurement invariance. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 456-466.
17.
Byrne, B. M., Stewart, S. M., & Lee, P. W. H. (2004). Validating the Beck Depression Inventory-II for Hong Kong community adolescents. International Journal of Testing, 4, 199-216.
18.
Chen, S. X., Hui, N. H. H., Bond, M. H., Sit, A. Y. F., Wong, S., Chow, V. S. Y., et al. (2006). Reexamining personal, social and cultural influences on compliance behavior in the United States, Poland, and Hong Kong. Journal of Social Psychology, 146, 223-244.
19.
Cheung, S.-K., & Sun, S. Y. K. (1999). Assessment of optimistic self-beliefs: Further validation of the Chinese version of the General Self-Efficacy Scale. Psychological Reports, 85, 1221-1224.
20.
Chinese Behavioural Sciences Society. (2000). The Chinese version of the Beck Depression Inventory (2nd ed.) [Licensed Chinese translation, The Psychological Corporation]. New York: Harcourt Brace.
21.
Choi, I., & Choi, Y. (2002). Culture and self-concept flexibility. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1508-1517.
22.
Chou, K. L. (2000). Emotional autonomy and depression among Chinese adolescents. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 161, 161-168.
23.
Clark, L. A. (1987). Mutual relevance of mainstream and cross-cultural psychology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 461-470.
24.
Cole, D. A., & McPherson, A. E. (1993). Relation of family subsystems to adolescent depression: Implementing a new family assessment strategy. Journal of Family Psychology, 7, 119-133.
25.
Cooper, C. R., Grotevant, H. D., & Condon, S. M. (1983). Individuality and connectedness in the family as a context for adolescent identity formation and role taking skill. In H. D. Grotevant & C. R. Cooper (Eds.), Adolescent development in the family: New directions for child development (pp. 43-59). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
26.
Dadds, M. R., Sanders, M. R., Morrison, M., & Rebgetz, M. (1992). Childhood depression and conduct disorder: II. An analysis of family interaction patterns in the home. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 505-513.
27.
Draguns, J. G. (1995). Cultural influences upon psychopathology: Clinical and practical implications. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, 4, 79-103.
28.
Forehand, R., Brody, J., Slotkin, J., Fauber, R., McCombs, A., & Long, N. (1988). Young adolescent and maternal depression: Assessment, interrelations, and family predictors. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 422-426.
29.
Greenberger, E., Chen, C., Tally, S., & Dong, Q. (2000). Family, peer, and individual correlates of depressive symptomatology among US and Chinese adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 209-219.
30.
Grotevant, H. D., & Cooper, C. R. (1986). Individualization in family relationships. Human Development, 29, 83-100.
31.
Harari, H., Jones, C. A., & Sek, H. (1988). Stress syndromes and stress predictors in American and Polish college students. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 19, 243-255.
32.
Heine, S. J., & Lehman, D. R. (1997). The cultural construction of self-enhancement: An examination of group-serving biases. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1268-1283.
33.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work related values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
34.
Jenkins, S. R., Goodness, K., & Buhrmester, D. (2002). Gender differences in early adolescents’ relationship qualities, self-efficacy, and depression symptoms. Journal of Early Adolescence, 22, 277-309.
35.
Kagitcibasi, C. (1995). Is psychology relevant to global human development issues? Experience from Turkey. American Psychologist, 50, 293-300.
36.
Kagitcibasi, C., & Berry, J. W. (1989). Cross-cultural psychology: Current research and trends. Annual Review of Psychology, 40, 493-531.
37.
Kanfer, D., & Zeiss, A. (1983). Depression, interpersonal standard setting and judgment of self-efficacy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 92, 319-329.
38.
Kwan, V. S. Y., Bond, M. H., & Singelis, T. M. (1997). Pancultural explanations for life satisfaction: Adding relationship harmony to self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1038-1051.
39.
Lee, Y.-T., & Ottati, V. (1993). Determinants of in-group and out-group perceptions of heterogeneity: An investigation of Sino-American stereotypes. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 24, 298-318.
40.
Leung, K., & Bond, M. H. (2004). Social axioms: A model for social beliefs in multicultural perspective. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 36, pp. 119-197). New York: Academic Press.
41.
Lewinsohn, P. M. (1974). A behavioral approach to depression. In R. J. Friedman & M. M. Katz (Eds.), The psychology of depression: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 157-185). Washington, DC: Winston-Wiley.
42.
Lewinsohn, P. M. (1975). The behavioral study and treatment of depression. In M. Hersen, R. M. Eisler, & P. M. Miller (Eds.) Progress in behavior modification (Vol. 1, pp. 19-64). New York: Academic Press.
43.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Roberts, R. E., Seeley, J. R., Rohde, P., Gotlib, I. H., & Hops, H. (1994). Adolescent psychopathology: II. Psychosocial risk factors for depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 302-315.
44.
Liao, T. F. (2002). Statistical group comparison. New York: John Wiley.
45.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253.
46.
Muris, P. (2002). Relationships between self-efficacy and symptoms of anxiety disorders and depression in a normal adolescent sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 337-348.
47.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1990). Sex differences in depression. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
48.
Okazaki, S. (1997). Sources of ethnic differences between Asian American and White American college students on measures of depression and social anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 52-60.
49.
Pelto, P. J. (1968). The difference between “tight” and “loose” societies. Transaction, 4, 37-40.
50.
Rindskopf, D. (1984). Using phantom and imaginary latent variables to parameterize constraints in linear structural models. Psychometrika, 49, 37-47.
51.
Rossier, J., Dahourou, D., & McCrae, R. R. (2005). Structural and mean-level analyses of the five-factor model and locus of control: Further evidence from Africa. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 36, 227-246.
52.
Sastry, J., & Ross, C. E. (1998). Asian ethnicity and the sense of personal control. Social Psychology Quarterly, 61, 101-120.
53.
Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Cultural dimensions of values: Toward an understanding of national differences. In U. Kim, H. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S. C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism (pp. 85-119). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
54.
Schwarzer, R. (1993). Measurement of perceived self-efficacy. Psychometric scales for cross-cultural research. Berlin, Germany: Freie Universitat Berlin.
55.
Segrin, C. (2000). Interpersonal relationships and mental health problems. In K. Dindia & S. Duck (Eds.), Communication and personal relationships (pp. 95-111). New York: John Wiley.
56.
Segrin, C., & Dillard, J. P. (1992). The interactional theory of depression: A meta-analysis of the research literature. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 11, 43-70.
57.
Seligman, M. E. P., Kaslow, N. J., Alloy, L. B., Peterson, C., Tanenbaum, R. L., & Abramson, L. Y. (1984). Attributional style and depressive symptoms among children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93, 235-238.
58.
Smith, P. B., & Bond, M. H. (2003). Honoring culture scientifically when doing social psychology. In M. A. Hogg & J. Cooper (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of social psychology (pp. 43-61). London: Sage.
59.
Steinberg, L. (1990). Autonomy, conflict, and harmony in the family. In S. S. Feldman & G. R. Elliot (Eds.), At the threshold: The developing adolescent (pp. 255-276). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
60.
Stewart, S. M., Bond, M. H., Abdullah, A. S. M., & Ma, S. (2000). Gender, parenting and adolescent functioning in Bangladesh. Merrill Palmer Quarterly, 46, 540-564.
61.
Stewart, S. M., Bond, M. H., Ho, L. M., Zaman, R. M., Dar, R., & Anwar, M. (2000). Perceptions of parents and adolescent outcomes in Pakistan. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 18, 335-352.
62.
Stewart, S. M., Bond, M. H., Kennard, B. D., Ho, L. M., & Zaman, R. M. (2002). Does the Chinese construct of guan export to the West?International Journal of Psychology, 37, 74-82.
63.
Stewart, S. M., Bond, M. H., Zaman, R. M., McBride-Chang, C., Rao, N., Ho, L. M., et al. (1999). Functional parenting in Pakistan. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 23, 747-770.
64.
Stewart, S. M., Byrne, B. M., Lee, P. W. H., Ho, L. M., Kennard, B. D., Hughes, C., et al. (2003). Personal versus interpersonal contributions to depressive symptoms among Hong Kong adolescents. International Journal of Psychology, 38, 160-169.
65.
Stewart, S. M., Kennard, B. D., Lee, P. W. H., Hughes, C. W., Mayes, T. L., Emslie, G. J., et al. (2004). A cross-cultural investigation of cognitions and depressive symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 248-257.
66.
Stewart, S. M., Rao, N., Bond, M. H., McBride-Chang, C., Fielding, R., & Kennard, B. D. (1998). Chinese dimensions of parenting: Broadening western predictors and outcomes. International Journal of Psychology, 33, 345-358.
67.
Tafarodi, R. W., & Smith, A. J. (2001). Individualism-collectivism and depressive sensitivity to life events: The case of Malaysian sojourners. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 25, 73-88.
68.
Triandis, H. C. (1989). Self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts. Psychological Review, 96, 269-289.
69.
Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview.
70.
Van de Vijver, F. J. R., & Leung, K. (1997a). Methods and data analysis for cross-cultural research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
71.
Van de Vijver, F. J. R., & Leung, K. (1997b). Methods and data analysis of comparative research. In J. W. Berry, Y. H. Poortinga, & J. Pandey (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Theory and method (Vol. 1). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
72.
Zhang, J. X., & Schwarzer, R. (1995). Measuring optimistic self-beliefs: A Chinese adaptation of the General Self-Efficacy Scale. Psychologia, 38, 174-181.
