Ethnic Identity and Self-Esteem as Mediators of the Effects of Cultural Involvement on the Wellbeing of Indigenous Andean People

Abstract

Evaluate the relationship between the cultural involvement and the different dimensions of the Lickan-Antay well-being, as well as the possible mediating effect of ethnic identity and the self-esteem in this relationship. An observational design was used. Three hundred ninety-five Lickan-Antay adult men and women residing in Lickan-Antay development areas and in two cities and northern Chile participated. The variables well-being, Lickan-Antay cultural involvement, self-esteem, and ethnic identity were measured with validated ad hoc scales and with good fit indicators. Cultural involvement has a positive direct effect on dimensions of Lickan-Antay well-being, and total and specific indirect effects on all dimensions of Lickan-Antay well-being, through self-esteem and ethnic identity. Self-esteem and ethnic identity explain an important part of the relationship between cultural involvement and the different dimensions of Lickan-Antay well-being. The results were discussed in the light of previous theories on cultural involvement, ethnic identity, and self-esteem and their relationship with well-being in indigenous communities, recognizing the particularities of these last ones in the Andean Latin American context.

Keywords

well-being cultural involvement ethnic identity self-esteem Andean people

Introduction

Well-being in indigenous peoples has traditionally been engaged from approaches centered on a westernized worldview and mainly linked to a eudaimonic construction of well-being (Gutiérrez-Carmona et al., 2019a). On a smaller scale, some studies have focused research on this area from a culturalist perspective, as in the case of native Andean peoples, where it has been found that well-being is related to the evaluation of different harmonies (e.g., internal harmony, harmony in community life, social harmony, harmony in ethnic-cultural development, and harmony with nature), which in their integration constitute feeling good (Gutiérrez-Carmona et al., 2020a; León, 2015).

In the research conducted by Gutiérrez-Carmona et al. (2019a) it was reported that, for the Lickan-Antay, the well-being construct is constituted by five dimensions: (a) Internal harmony (i.e., “Balance, proportion and correspondence between different dimensions of human beings, related to their daily functioning, such as: inner strength related to health, development of balanced behaviors, mastery of knowledge, vision of the future, perseverance and compassion”); (b) Harmony in community life (i.e., “Balance in community and intercommunity life, product of interpersonal relationships founded on reciprocity, relationality and respect”); (c) Harmony in society (i.e., “Equilibrium in social relations, framed in an ideological, legal, institutional, economic and political context, perceived as favorable”); (d) Harmony in ethnic-cultural development (i.e., “Union of the Lickan-Antay in the search for the valuation and recreation of their cultural practices based on their cosmovision”); (e) Harmony with nature (i.e., “Balance between human beings and nature, from a spiritual and sacred sense, valuing and respecting the existence of other non-human beings such as animals and plants”).

Diverse variables either contextual or individual have been studied in their relationship with well-being in indigenous people. At the contextual level, it has been observed that factors such as environmental conflicts, the irruption in their ancestral lands, the displacement (Luque et al., 2016; Snodgrass et al., 2017) and the colonialist structure still prevailing (Pelcastre-Villafuerte et al., 2020), negatively affect the well-being of indigenous people. At the individual level, it has been found that cultural involvement—understood as the participation in traditional activities or the use of the native language (Caqueo-Urízar et al., 2014; Carlson & Güler, 2018; Dockery, 2011)—has a positive effect on the well-being of indigenous people (Hapeta et al., 2019; Kirmayer, 2015; Lindstedt et al., 2017), also playing a key role in the process of development of ethnic identity and influencing the assessment and affective bond established with the reference group (Phinney, 1992).

Ethnic identity is a specification of the social identity and derives from the feeling of belonging to a specific ethnic group, to which an evaluative and effective meaning is given (Tajfel, 1981). Like cultural involvement, this variable has been positively related to higher levels of well-being in different ethnic groups (Brown et al., 2021; Gómez Berrocal et al., 2020; Sari et al., 2018), by strengthening the perception of integration to the group that feels they belong (Espinosa & Tapia, 2011) and by the consequent positive affect that arises from this perception (Rivas-Drake et al., 2014).

According to the social identity theory (SIT) (Tajfel & Turner, 1979), ethnic identity and social identity would be two different but related components of self concept, so it is correct to assume that an affective meaning and a positive assessment of the reference ethnic group, would be accompanied by a positive individual self-esteem, reflecting the existing relationship between ethnic identity and self-esteem.

Self-esteem refers to the evaluative and affective connotation toward oneself, which can be positive or negative, which arises from the evaluation of their characteristics (Rosenberg, 1965). It has been observed that, like ethnic identity, self-esteem receives a positive effect from cultural involvement, even more so in minority ethnic groups (Dockery, 2011; Guitart et al., 2011; Morcom, 2017). Self-esteem in turn influences in a positive way (Sretenović & Branković, 2019) and has been considered a protective factor of well-being (Olenik-Shemesh et al., 2018). Likewise, studies carried out on different ethnic groups (e.g., Bajaj et al., 2016; Joshanloo & Daemi, 2015; Yıldırım et al., 2019), have shown the mediating effect of self-esteem on the relationship between differents variables and well-being, including the relationship between perceived discrimination and psychological well-being in minority ethnic groups (Urzúa et al., 2018).

The Lickan-Antay people is an Andean ethnic group that since pre-Columbian times has prosperously developed its culture and the practice of its traditional trades (i.e., livestock and agriculture) in the driest desert in the world, the Atacama Desert, Chile (Bustos, 1999). Its history is marked by important processes of domination, colonization, and cultural exchange. In pre-Columbian times, in the first half of the first millenium (AD) they were economically, politically, religiously, and culturally influenced by the Tiwanaku culture of the Titicaca Lake altiplano, and after 1400 AD they suffered Inca domination, who reorganized the population under a central administration and introduced the cult of the sun (Bustos, 1999). Between 900 and 1450 AD, the “Lickan-antay nation” was formed, a period between Tiwanaku and Inca domination, when the Lickan-antay identity was formed and directed by local authorities. With the Spanish conquest and colonization (second half of the second millenium AD), a long period of cultural assimilation began, extending into the Republican period with economic and political interventions, first by the Bolivian State and later by the Chilean State—after the War of the Pacific—(Bustos, 1999). For more information, see Etnografía Atacameña (Bustos, 1999).

Currently, these people face multiple external factors that threaten the well-being of their people and communities, such as the siege of their ancestral lands by the mining industry, the privatization of water and water scarcity in the development areas of their communities, the colonialist structure of the Chilean State (Bolados & Babidge, 2017) and large-scale tourism development and services that respond to a globalizing economy (Bustos, 2005), among others.

It is in this context where the need arises to explore the factors that may be positively or negatively associated with well-being in people of this ethnicity, but considering well-being from a culturalist perspective and focused on what is proposed by the same ethnicity (Gutiérrez-Carmona et al., 2019a).

Based on the above, the objective of this research was to evaluate the relationship between cultural involvement and the different dimensions of Lickan-Antay well-being, as well as the possible mediating effect of ethnic identity and self-esteem in this relationship.

The hypotheses of this research are: (a) cultural involvement has a significant and positive direct effect on the different dimensions of Lickan-Antay well-being, (b) cultural involvement has a significant and positive effect on ethnic identity and self-esteem, and (c) ethnic identity and self-esteem are partial mediators in the relationship between cultural involvement and the different dimensions of Lickan-Antay well-being.

Methodology

Design and type of study

This article is part of a macro research project, developed from a two-phase sequential exploratory mixed exploratory design (i.e., first qualitative phase and second quantitative phase), which sought, from a culturalist perspective, to approach the factors related to well-being in people of the Lickan-Antay ethnic group. The first phase of this research project was focused on analyzing, from a qualitative approach, the meaning of well-being and its relationship with cultural and contextual factors from the Lickan-Antay perspective. The results of this first phase were published in two articles: (a) Meaning of well-being from the Lickan-Antay perspective: a qualitative and decolonialist approach (Gutiérrez-Carmona et al., 2020a); and Traditional practices and contextual factors that influence the well-being of Lickan-Antay people (Atacama, Chile) (Gutiérrez-Carmona et al., 2020b). Based on the results of the first phase, two of the scales used in this article were developed (i.e., “Well-being scale in Lickan-Antay people”; “Lickan-Antay scale of cultural involvement”).

The present manuscript responds to one of the specific objectives of the second phase of the macro research project. This article was approached from a quantitative approach, through a non-experimental cross-sectional design.

Participants

The study universe is made up of 30,369 Lickan-Antay people (Instituto Nacional de estadisticas [INE], 2017). The sample consisted of 395 people who self-identified as Lickan-Antay and who met the requirements established by the indigenous law in force in Chile: son or daughter of an indigenous father or mother, descendant with at least one Lickan-Antay surname and maintain Likan-Antay cultural traits, such as the practice of ways of life, customs, or religions (Ley Indígena 19,253). Of the total sample, 42.8% are men and 57.2% women, with an average age of 41.3 years (DE = 17.32). The participants came from the indigenous development areas of Alt el Loa and Atacama la Grande, and from the cities of Calama and Antofagasta in Chile. They were accessed through intentional snowball sampling.

Instruments

Well-being scale in Lickan-Antay people (BLA32)

The BLA32 scale was developed by Gutiérrez-Carmona et al. (2019a) and considers 32 items in a six-point Likert-type response form (1 = totally disagree; 6 = totally agree), grouped in five dimensions: internal harmony (e.g., “my way of acting in life allows me to harmoniously face the challenges I face,” “I have clear objectives that I wish to achieve in the future”); harmony in community life (e.g., “in the community where I live there is respect among its inhabitants,” “in the community where I live, we give help to those who need it”); harmony in society (e.g., “the State of Chile guarantees the satisfaction of the basic needs of the Lickan-Antay People,” “the Lickan-Antay communities have a secure and continuous access to irrigation water”); harmony in ethnic-cultural development (e.g., “the Lickan-Antay are proud of our culture,” “the Lickan-Antay people value their worldview”); and harmony with nature (e.g., “I have a close and respectful relationship with animals, plants and the world in general,” “I live in harmony with the cycles of nature”).

In the present study, the reliability indices were .94 for the total scale and .87 for the internal harmony dimension, .89 for harmony in community life, .67 for harmony in society, .94 for harmony in ethnic-cultural development and .92 for harmony with nature.

Lickan-Antay scale of cultural involvement (ICLA10)

The scale of cultural involvement was developed by Gutiérrez-Carmona et al. (2019b). This scale assesses cultural involvement from the participation and/or practice of traditional Lickan-Antay activities, such as ceremonies and festivities, and considers 10 items in a 5-point Likert-type response format (1 = never; 5 = always), which they give an account of this participation (e.g., do you participate in the flowering of the cattle?, do you participate in cleaning the canals?, do you celebrate the indigenous new year?) in the present study the global reliability of the scale was .91.

Ethnic identity

To evaluate this variable, items were used that inquired about affirmation and ethnic identification of the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Scale—developed by Phinney (1992), adapted by Smith (2002) for Spanish-speaking populations in Ibero-American countries (e.g., “being Lickan-Antay is very important to you,” “you are aware of your Lickan-Antay roots,” “you feel very united/your ethnicity and culture,” “being Lickan-Antay defines who you are very well”). This variable reflects the importance, the affective meaning, and the evaluative connotation of belonging to an ethnic group, in this case the Lickan-Antay.

The answer option is a 4-point Likert type (1 = strongly disagree; 4 = strongly agree) where high scores reflect an affective meaning and a positive evaluative connotation toward the reference ethnic group (Smith, 2002). In the present study, the reliability of the scale was .84.

Self-esteem scale

To measure individual self-esteem, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (1965) validated in Chile by Rojas-Barahona et al. (2009) was used. This scale is made up of 10 items in Likert-type response format (1 = strongly disagree; 4 = strongly agree) regarding the feelings of satisfaction that each person has with himself (e.g., “I feel that I have good qualities,” “I have a positive opinion about myself”).

In previous studies the reliability of the scale has fluctuated between .72 and .89 (Rojas-Barahona et al., 2009) and in the present study the reliability was .84.

Procedures

The project was reviewed and approved by the Scientific Ethics Committee of the Universidad Católica de Norte, through resolution 036/2,017. In turn, it was presented and discussed in various instances with Lickan-Antay people, representatives and leaders of this ethnic group, and with the directive of the Council of the Atacameño Peoples (Lickan-Antay). Throughout the investigative process we have sought to maintain communication continuous and reflective with different Lickan-Antay people, who have guided the development of this research, and have reviewed and evaluated categories, scales, and procedures used.

The instrument was applied individually. The participants were given information about the study objectives, emphasizing voluntary, and anonymous participation. All participants read and signed an informed consent.

Statistical analysis

The reliability analyzes by internal consistency—Cronbach’s α—and the descriptive analyzes were carried out in the SPSS V.21 statistical program. Analyzes with latent variables were performed with Mplus7.4 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998).

To guarantee an adequate measurement of the constructs and the validity of the subsequent statistical results, all measurement models were evaluated. For this, confirmatory factor analyzes (CFA) were performed for categorical variables with estimation by weighted least squares adjusted for means and variances (WLSMV) as recommended by the specialized literature (Asún et al., 2016; Forero et al., 2009). To evaluate the fit of the models, the Chi-square statistics (χ²), Comparative Fit Index (CFI ≥ 0.95), Tuker Lewis Index (TLI ≥ 0.90), and the Mean Square Approximation Error (RMSEA ≤ 0.06) were used.

Previous analyzes determined the need to adjust the BLA32 scale. Two items from the harmony dimension in society were eliminated, and cross factor loads and correlated errors greater than were incorporated |0.30| (Cudeck & O’Dell, 1994; Kline, 2016), with which an optimal fit of the 5-factor model was achieved (χ²(384) = 756.92and p < .0001; RMSEA = 0.050, IC90% RMSEA [0.044; 0.055], p(RMSEA ≤ 0.05) = 0.545; CFI = 0.985; TLI = 0.983).

In the ICLA10 scale, two items were eliminated due to high correlated errors (over .35) with other three and four items, and under theoretical support, the correlation was allowed between the items “celebrate the indigenous new year?” And “Participate in mingas” (both festivities celebrated collectively); and the items “Do you give offerings to the PattaHori?” and “do you carry out activities of gratitude to the ancestors?” (Both are related ceremonies in their practice). With these modifications, an optimal fit of the model was achieved (χ²(18) = 34.582and p = .0107; RMSEA = 0.048, IC90% RMSEA [0.023; 0.072], p(RMSEA ≤ 0.05) = 0.512; CFI = 0.997; TLI = 0.996).

Of the seven items used to assess ethnic identity, two were eliminated, due to high correlated errors (0.35) with another four and two items, with which an optimal fit of the model was achieved (χ²(5) = 12.014and p < .0346; RMSEA = 0.060, IC90% RMSEA [0.015; 0.104], p(RMSEA ≤ 0.05) = 0.302; CFI = 0.997; TLI = 0.994).

In the case of the self-esteem scale, all inverse items were eliminated, due to the fact that method factors presented severe redundancy and low factor saturations (λ < 0.4). With this adjustment, an optimal fit of the model was achieved (χ²(5) = 11.388, p = .0442; RMSEA = 0.057, IC90% RMSEA [0.009; 0.101], p(RMSEA ≤ 0.05) = 0.339; CFI = 0.998; TLI = 0.996).

With the adjusted measurement models, a structural equation model was estimated that considered direct, indirect, and total effects of cultural involvement on the five dimensions of Lickan-Antay well-being (i.e., internal harmony, harmony in community life, harmony in society, harmony in ethnic development, and harmony with the nature of Lickan-Antay well-being) mediated by ethnic identity and self-esteem. In the analysis, it has been considered that, within a mediation model, opposite signs of the direct and indirect effects of an independent variable on a dependent variable, account for a suppression effect (MacKinnon et al., 2000; Tzelgov & Henik, 1991). The maximum likelihood (ML) procedure was used as the estimation procedure. This estimation allows us to determine to what extent the model predicts the values of the covariance matrix, where values close to zero indicate a better fit. This method has proven to be robust with data that are not normally distributed and with n > 300 (Hayes & Preacher, 2014).

Results

The responses in all the variables revolve around values close to the upper limit of the scales used. In the case of Lickan-Antay well-being, with the exception of social harmony, all dimensions averaged values that can be considered as high. In the mediating variables, ethnic identity had a higher average score than self-esteem (Table 1).

Table 1.

Mean and Standard Deviation for the Study Scales.

Scale/subscale	Range	Mean	SD
Lickan-Antay well-being
(a) Internal harmony	1–6	5.12	0.757
(b) Harmony in the communitarian life	1–6	4.60	0.920
(c) Harmony in the society	1–6	3.15	1.205
(d) Harmony in ethnic-cultural development	1–6	4.91	0.889
(e) Harmony in the nature	1–6	5.16	0.850
Cultural involvement	1–5	3.39	1.126
Ethnic identity	1–4	3.60	0.500
Self-esteem	1–4	3.38	0.506

Structural Equations Model

The theoretical model that considered total, direct and indirect effects of cultural involvement of well-being and mediating effects of ethnic identity and self-esteem, showed a good fit to the data (χ²(1,039) = 1789.370,p < .0001; RMSEA = 0.043, IC90% RMSEA [0.039; 0.046], p(RMSEA≤ 0.05) =1.000; CFI = 0.972; TLI = 0.970). The results of the model and the estimated parameters are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Mediation model using standardized parameters: effect of cultural involvement (CI) in the five dimensions of Lickan-Antay well-being, mediated by self-esteem (SE) and ethnic identity (EI).

When evaluating the effect of the independent variable on the mediating variables, it was observed that cultural involvement has direct positive, significant, and high intensity effects on self-esteem (Std(γ) = 0.381, t = 7.364, p < .001) and on ethnic identity (Std(γ) = 0.562, t = 14.008, p < .001), showing that high levels of cultural involvement are associated with high levels of self-esteem and ethnic identity in the participants.

Cultural involvement and internal harmony

When analyzing the effect of cultural involvement on the internal harmony dimension of Lickan-Antay well-being (see Table 2), a significant total effect of moderate intensity was observed (Std(γ) = 0.306, t = 6.209, p < .001), and a direct effect, equally significant, but of low intensity (Std(γ) = 0.215, t = 3.435, p = 001). In this case, the indirect effects are also significant and of low intensity, of which one was positive (i.e., through self-esteem) and the other negative (i.e., through ethnic identity). It is observed that ethnic identity has a suppressive effect on the relationship between cultural involvement and internal harmony, since after its inclusion in the model, there is an increase in the proportion of variance directly explained by cultural involvement in the internal harmony dimension. Thus, cultural involvement can be considered a better predictor of internal harmony, if the relationship between cultural involvement and the ethnic identity of the Lickan-Antay people is considered. Self-esteem, on the other hand, has a mediating effect, managing to explain in part the relationship between cultural involvement and internal harmony, by being in the causal path between these two variables.

Table 2.

Standardized Estimates, Confidence Intervals, and Percentage of the Total Effect.

Effects CI	IH	HC	SH	HE	HN
Total (A + B)	0.306*	0.427*	0.213*	0.490*	0.523*
(A) Direct	0.215*	0.430*	0.00.91	0.288*	0.363*
(B) Total indirect (C + D)	0.091	−.003	0.123*	0.202*	0.161*
(C) Specific indirect SE	0.200*	0.109*	0.079*	0.033	0.071*
(D) Specific indirect EI	−0.108*	−0.112*	0.044	0.170*	0.90*

Note. CI = cultural involvement; EI = ethnic identity; SE = self-esteem; IH = internal harmony; HC = harmony in the communitarian life; SH = social harmony; HE = harmony in ethnic cultural-development; HN = harmony with nature.

Indicates a significant at 95% confidence or higher.

Cultural involvement and harmony in community life

Both the total effect (Std(γ) = 0.427, t = 9.149, p < .001) and the direct effect (Std(γ) = 0.430, t = 6.718, p < .001) of cultural involvement on the harmony dimension in community life, were positive, meaningful, and of high intensity. The indirect effects were significant and of low intensity, positive through self-esteem and negative through ethnic identity (see Table 2). As in the previous case, when the ethnic identity variable is incorporated into the model, there is an increase in the proportion of variance directly explained by cultural involvement, this time in the dimension of harmony in community life. Thus, it can be considered that cultural involvement will be a better predictor of community harmony, if the relationship between cultural involvement and ethnic identity of the Lickan-Antay people is considered. Self-esteem has a mediating effect on the relationship between cultural involvement and harmony in community life; in other words, it can be affirmed that a high level of cultural involvement increases self-esteem, which, in turn, increases the level of harmony in community life perceived by the Lickan-Antay.

Cultural involvement and social harmony

When evaluating the effect of cultural involvement on social harmony, it was evidenced that the intermediate variables fully mediate this relationship, so the direct effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable was not significant (Std(γ) = 0.091, t = 0.908, p = .364). In this case the indirect effect was positive and significant through self-esteem, while through ethnic identity it was positive but not significant (see Table 2).

Given the above, it can be affirmed that a high level of cultural involvement is accompanied by high self-esteem, which positively and significantly affects the perception of social harmony. Likewise, it can be affirmed that a high level of ethnic identity accompanied by high self-esteem explains why cultural involvement positively and significantly affects the dimension of social harmony of Lickan-Antay well-being. In other words, it is not the direct effect of cultural involvement, it is the indirect effect through ethnic identity and self-esteem that positively and significantly affects the perception of social harmony in the Lickan-Antay participants.

Cultural involvement and harmony in ethnic-cultural development

The cultural involvement showed a total positive, significant, and high intensity effect on the harmony in the Lickan-Antay ethnic-cultural development (Std(γ) = 0.490, t = 11.218, p < .001) and an equal positive direct effect and significant, but of moderate intensity (Std(γ) = 0.288, t = 5.190, p < .001), when controlling the intermediate variables. Unlike the previous case, the indirect effect was positive and significant through the identity ethnic, and positive but not significant through self-esteem (see Table 2). In other words, in this case, cultural involvement had an indirect effect mainly through ethnic identity in the harmony dimension in Lickan-Antay ethnic-cultural development.

Cultural involvement and harmony with nature

Meanwhile, cultural involvement showed a total positive, significant effect of high intensity (Std(γ) = 0.523, t = 12.257, p < .001), and a positive and significant direct effect of moderate intensity (Std(γ) = 0.363, t = 6.015, p < .001) on harmony with nature. In this case, both specific indirect effects were positive, significant, and of low intensity, through self-esteem and ethnic identity (see Table 2).

In this way, it can be affirmed that a high level of cultural involvement positively affects ethnic identity and self-esteem, which in turn, positively affect the perception of harmony in the nature of the Lickan-Antay.

Given the above, it can be affirmed that self-esteem and ethnic identity, as a whole or specifically, mediate the relationship between cultural involvement and the different dimensions of Lickan-Antay well-being.

Discussion

The results of this study allow us to sustain the first hypothesis of this research (i.e., cultural involvement has a significant and positive direct effect on different dimensions of Lickan-Antay well-being), which is in line with the findings of other studies, conducted in other ethnic minorities (e.g., Hapeta et al., 2019; Kirmayer, 2015; Lindstedt et al., 2017), and quantitatively supports the findings of the study by Gutiérrez-Carmona et al. (2020a), which shows that in a neoliberal, capitalist, and extractivist context—perceived as negative for the well-being of the Lickan-Antay—participation in traditional activities, festivities, and ceremonies is a protective factor for well-being, both at the individual and community levels.

Likewise, the results of this study support the second hypothesis (i.e., cultural involvement has a significant and positive effect on ethnic identity and self-esteem, which coincides with other studies that report the positive and significant effect of involvement on self-esteem (e.g., Dockery, 2011, 2011; Guitart et al., 2011; Morcom, 2017) and on ethnic identity (e.g., Hapeta et al., 2019; Kirmayer, 2015; Lindstedt et al., 2017).

The third hypothesis proposed that ethnic identity and the self-esteem could have a partial mediating effect in the relationship between cultural involvement and different dimensions of Lickan-Antay well-being. The results of this study allow supporting this hypothesis since total or specific indirect effects were found in the relationship between cultural involvement and the different dimensions of Lickan-Antay well-being, through self-esteem and ethnic identity.

In general, this mediation effect can be explained by considering that the Lickan-Antay people are an ethnic minority within a larger society that threatens their culture and way of life (Bolados & Babidge, 2017; Bustos, 2005), and in this context, cultural involvement, supposes a process of reaffirmation, revaluation, and cultural vindication that positively affects self-esteem and ethnic identity (Tajfel, 1981).

In turn, these intermediate variables, as in other studies (e.g., Brown et al., 2021; Gómez Berrocal et al., 2020; Sari et al., 2018; Sretenović & Branković, 2019), positively affect well-being. This is because, possibly, a high ethnic identity is accompanied by a greater sense of integration with their reference group (Espinosa & Tapia, 2011), a positive affective assessment of their culture (Rivas-Drake et al., 2014) and better positioning when facing a larger society (Smith, 2002; Tajfel, 1981); and that possibly high self-esteem is related to a better perception of oneself, a better relationship with others and a greater ability to face the possible negative effects of ethnic discrimination (Barra Almagia, 2012; Urzúa et al., 2018), even more so in societies with colonialist structures such as those in Latin America (Pelcastre-Villafuerte et al., 2020).

In this study, contrary to expectations, ethnic identity had a suppressing effect on the relationship between cultural involvement and two dimensions of Lickan-Antay well-being (i.e., internal harmony and harmony in community life). This suppression effect increased the magnitude of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable and indicates that ethnic identity also explains the variability of cultural involvement as it relates to the dimensions of internal harmony and harmony in community life of Lickan-Antay well-being. Given the above, it is possible to affirm that cultural involvement will be a better predictor of internal harmony and harmony in community life, if its relationship with the variable ethnic identity is considered.

A possible explanation for this suppression effect could be that while cultural involvement influences the process of ethnic identity development (Phinney, 1992; Tajfel & Turner, 1979), the level of cultural involvement also influences how the Lickan-Antay engage with their culture of origin. This can be interpreted as follows: the practice of traditional activities will have a greater positive effect on the dimensions of internal harmony and communal harmony in the Lickan-Antay with high levels of affirmation and identification with their culture of origin. In other words, the exercise of traditional practices will strengthen to a greater extent the well-being in these two dimensions (i.e., internal harmony and community harmony), to the extent that these practices arise from the appreciation and affection for their culture of origin.

It is also important to highlight that self-esteem and ethnic identity, totally mediated the relationship between cultural involvement and the social harmony dimension of Lickan-Antay well-being. This can be explained by considering the important effect that these intermediate variables have, on how they are related and on the positioning of ethnic minorities in relation to larger societies (Smith, 2002; Tajfel, 1981; Urzúa et al., 2018).

Conclusion

Although a considerable number of publications on the Lickan-Antay culture were found, few of these provided translational evidence capable of influencing public policies and social health strategies related to the current well-being of this native people. In this context, the present study contributes to understanding how cultural involvement positively affects the well-being of the Lickan-Antay people, and in turn, provides empirical evidence on which variables it is possible to intervene in the search for the well-being of this indigenous people

The direct and indirect effect of cultural involvement in the different dimensions of Lickan-Antay well-being supports the importance of developing intercultural spaces, which guarantee reciprocal and symmetrical interaction and exchange between different cultures. And in this context, beyond the external manifestations of culture, the recognition and appreciation of the Lickan-Antay worldview and of other indigenous peoples is promoted.

It is important to evaluate the stability of the variables studied, which is why it is necessary to replicate this model in longitudinal contexts. Likewise, it is important to replicate this study in a broader context, which allows the conclusions to be extrapolated to the other indigenous peoples of the south-central Andean zone of South America, as well as to the other indigenous peoples of the world.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This study received financial assistance from the Agencia Nacional de Investigación para el Desarrollo de Chile (ANID): ANID/Doctorado Nacional/2019-folio21190864.

ORCID iDs

Andrés Gutiérrez-Carmona

Alfonso Urzúa

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