Why did humanistic psychology lose its power and influence in American psychology? Previous answers have focused on the historical shortcomings of the humanistic movement, a perspective that essentially “blames the victim.” In contrast, this article suggests that two outside forces—mainstream American psychology and conservative forces in the larger culture—also played a role in undermining the humanistic vision. The article concludes that humanistic psychology lost its power and influence, in large measure, because it is inherently incompatible with the basic assumptions and values of contemporary mainstream psychology and with the conservative ideologies that have increasingly gained power in American culture since the 1960s. Implications of this analysis for the future of the humanistic movement are presented.
Aanstoos, C., Serlin, I., & Greening, T. (2000). History of Division 32 (Humanistic Psychology) of the American Psychological Association. In D. Dewsbury (Ed.), Unification through division: Histories of the divisions of the American Psychological Association (Vol. 5, pp. 85-112). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
2.
Allen, G. (1968, January). Hate therapy: Sensitivity training for planned change. American Opinion, p. 73.
3.
American Psychological Association. (2000). APA membership statistics [Online]. Retrieved July 12, 2007 , from http://www.apa.org/archieves/yearlymembership.html
4.
Anderson, W.T. (1990). Reality isn't what it used to be. San Francisco: HarperCollins.
5.
Anderson, W.T. (1998). The future of self: Inventing the postmodern person . Los Angeles: Tarcher.
6.
Apfelbaum, B., & Apfelbaum, C. (1973). Encountering encounter groups: A reply to Koch and Haigh. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 13, 53-67.
7.
Arbuckle, D.S. (1973). Koch's distortion of encounter group theory. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 13, 47-51.
8.
Arons, M. (1994). Creativity, humanistic psychology, and the American zeitgeist. In F. Wertz (Ed.), The humanistic movement (pp. 45-61). Lake Worth, FL : Gardner.
9.
Arons, M., & Richards, R. (2001). Two noble insurgencies: Creativity and humanistic psychology. In K. J. Schneider, J. F. T. Bugental, & J. Frasier (Eds.), The handbook of humanistic psychology (pp. 127-142). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
10.
Barrett-Lennard, G.T. (1998). Carl Rogers' helping system: Journey and substance . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
11.
Bellah, R.N., Madsen, R., Sullivan, W.M., Swidler, A., & Tipton, S.M. (1985). Habits of the heart: Individualism and commitment in American life. Berkeley: University of California Press.
12.
Bennett, F.D. (1976). Encounter groups: Growth or addiction? Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 16(4), 59-70.
13.
Bobgan, M., & Bobgan, D. (1989). Prophets of psychoheresy II. Santa Barbara, CA: Eastgate.
14.
Bohart, A., & Tallman, K. (1999). How clients make therapy work: The process of active self-healing. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
15.
Brownback, P. (1982). The danger of self-love. Chicago : Moody Press.
16.
Bugental, J.F.T. (1976). The search for existential identity. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
17.
Bugental, J.F.T. (1981). The search for authenticity. New York: Irvington.
18.
Bugental, J.F.T., & Bracke, P.E. (1992). The future of humanistic-existential psychotherapy . Psychotherapy, 29(1), 28-33.
19.
Buss, A.R. (1979). Humanistic psychology as liberal ideology: The socio-historical roots of Maslow's theory of self-actualization. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 19(3), 43-55.
20.
Cain, D.J. (2003). Advancing humanistic psychology and psychotherapy: Some challenges and proposed solutions. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 43(3), 10-41.
21.
DeCarvalho, R.J. (1991). The founders of humanistic psychology. New York: Praeger.
22.
Dublin, J.E. (1972). Whose image of what? Open letter to Sigmund Koch . Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 12, 79-85.
23.
Elkins, D.N. (1998). Beyond religion: A personal program for building a spiritual life outside the walls of traditional religion. Wheaton, IL: Quest Books.
24.
Elkins, D.N. (2000). Old Saybrook I and II: The visioning and revisioning of humanistic psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology , 40(2), 119-127.
25.
Elkins, D.N. (2001). Beyond religion: Toward a humanistic spirituality . In K. J. Schneider, J. F. T. Bugental, & J. Frasier (Eds.), The handbook of humanistic psychology (pp. 201-212). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
26.
Elkins, D.N. (2007). Empirically supported treatments: The deconstruction of a myth. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 47(4), 474-500.
27.
Elkins, D.N. (in press). The medical model in psychotherapy: Its limitations and failures. Journal of Humanistic Psychology.
28.
Elliott, R. (2001). Research on the effectiveness of humanistic therapies: A meta-analysis. In D. Cain & J. Seeman (Eds.), Humanistic psychotherapies: Handbook of research and practice (pp. 57-82). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
29.
Frankl, V. (1963). Man's search for meaning. New York: Simon & Schuster.
30.
Frankl, V. (1978). The unheard cry for meaning: Psychotherapy and humanism. New York: Simon & Schuster.
31.
Frankl, V. (1986). The doctor and the soul. New York: Random.
32.
Friedman, M. (1976). Aiming at the self: The paradox of encounter and the human potential movement. Journal of Humanistic Psychology , 16, 5-34.
33.
Gendlin, E.T. (1992). Celebrations and problems of humanistic psychology . The Humanistic Psychologist, 20(2-3), 447-460.
34.
Giorgi, A. (1968). Existential phenomenology and the psychology of the human person. Review of Existential Psychology and Psychiatry , 8, 102-116.
35.
Giorgi, A. (1970). Psychology as a human science. New York: Harper & Row.
36.
Giorgi, A. (Ed.). (1985). Phenomenology and psychological research. Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press.
37.
Giorgi, A. (1992). The idea of human science. The Humanistic Psychologist, 20(2/3), 181-202.
38.
Giorgi, A. (2001). The search for psyche: A human science perspective . In K. J. Schneider, J. T. F. Bugental., & J. F. Pierson (Eds.), The handbook of humanistic psychology (pp. 53-64). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
39.
Giorgi, A. (2005). Remaining challenges for humanistic psychology . Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 45(2), 204-216.
40.
Goble, F.G. (1978). The third force. The psychology of Abraham Maslow . New York: Grossman.
41.
Greenberg, L.S., Elliott, R., & Lietaer, G. (1994). Research on experiential psychotherapies. In A. E. Bergin & S. L. Garfield (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (pp. 509-542). New York: John Wiley.
42.
Greening, T., & Bohart, A. (2001). Humanistic psychology and positive psychology . American Psychologist, 56, 81-82.
43.
Haigh, G.V. (1971). Response to Koch's assumptions about group process . Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 11(2), 129-132.
44.
Kahn, E. (1984). Heinz Kohut and Carl Rogers: A timely comparison . American Psychologist, 40, 893-904.
45.
Kilpatrick, W.K. (1985). The emperor's new clothes: The naked truth about the new psychology. Westchester, IL: Crossway Books.
46.
Koch, S. (1971). The image of man implicit in encounter group theory . Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 11(2), 109-128.
47.
Kohut, H. (1971). The analysis of the self. New York: International Universities Press.
48.
Kohut, H. (1977). The restoration of the self. New York: International Universities Press.
49.
Kohut, H. (1982). Introspection, empathy, and the semi-circle of mental health. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 63, 395-407.
50.
Kohut, H. (1984). How does analysis cure?Chicago : University of Chicago Press.
51.
Kohut, H. (1985). Self psychology and the humanities: Reflections on a new psychoanalytic approach. New York: Norton.
52.
Krippner, S. (2001). Research methodology in the light of postmodernity . In K. J. Schneider, J. F. T. Bugental, & J. Frasier (Eds.), The handbook of humanistic psychology (pp. 289-304). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
53.
Leitner, L.M., & Epting, F. (2001). Constructivist approaches to therapy. In K. J. Schneider, J. F. T. Bugental, & J. Frasier (Eds.), The handbook of humanistic psychology (pp. 421-431). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
54.
Lieberman, M., Yalom, I., & Miles, M. (1973). Encounter groups: First facts. New York: Basic Books.
55.
Maslow, A.H. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper & Row.
56.
Maslow, A.H. (1962). Toward a psychology of being. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
57.
Maslow, A.H. (1966). The psychology of science: A reconnaissance. New York: Harper & Row.
58.
Maslow, A.H. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New York: Viking.
59.
Maslow, A.H. (1976). Religions, values, and peak experiences. New York: Penguin.
60.
Maslow, A.H. (1998). Maslow on management. New York : John Wiley.
61.
May, R. (1972). Man's search for himself. New York: Dell.
62.
May, R. (1974). Love and will. New York: Dell.
63.
May, R. (1980). Psychology and the human dilemma. New York: Norton.
64.
May, R. (1983). The discovery of being. New York: Norton.
65.
May, R. (1984). The courage to create. New York: Bantam.
66.
May, R. (1985). My quest for beauty. Dallas, TX: Saybrook.
67.
May, R., Angel, E. , & Ellenberger, H. (Eds.). (1958). Existence: A new dimension in psychiatry and psychology . New York: Basic Books.
68.
Miller, W. R. (Ed.). (1999). Integrating spirituality into treatment. Washington, DC : American Psychological Association.
69.
Milton, J. (2002). The road to malpsychia: Humanistic psychology and our discontents. San Francisco: Encounter Books.
70.
Montuori, A., & Purser, R. (2001). Humanistic psychology in the workplace. In K. J. Schneider, J. T. Bugental, & J. Fraser Pierson (Eds.), The handbook of humanistic psychology (pp. 635-645). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
71.
O'Hara, M. (2001). Emancipatory therapeutic practice for a new era: A work of retrieval. In K. J. Schneider, J. T. Bugental, & J. Fraser Pierson (Eds.), The handbook of humanistic psychology (pp. 473-489). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
72.
O'Hara, M. (1996, September/October). Divided we stand. Family Therapy Networker, 20(5), 47-53.
73.
O'Hara, M. (1997). Relational empathy: Beyond modernist egocentrism to postmodern holistic contextualism. In A. Bohart & L. Greenberg (Eds.), Empathy reconsidered (pp. 295-320). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
74.
Richards, P.S., & Bergin, A.E. (1997). A spiritual strategy for counseling and psychotherapy . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
75.
Richards, P.S., Hardman, R.K., & Berrett, M.E. (2007). Spiritual approaches in the treatment of women with eating disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
76.
Rogers, C.R. (1942). Counseling and psychotherapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
77.
Rogers, C.R. (1951). Client-centered therapy. Boston : Houghton Mifflin.
78.
Rogers, C.R. (1959). A theory of therapy, personality and interpersonal relationships as developed in the client-centered framework. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A study of a science: Vol. 3. Formulations of the person in the social context (pp. 184-256). New York: McGraw-Hill.
79.
Rogers, C.R. (1970). Carl Rogers on encounter groups. New York: Harper & Row.
80.
Rogers, D.R. (1972). On becoming a person. Boston : Houghton Mifflin.
81.
Rogers, C.R. (1977). Carl Rogers on personal power. New York: Delacorte Press.
82.
Schneider, K.J. (2004). Rediscovery of awe. St. Paul, MN: Paragon House.
83.
Schneider, K. J. (Ed.). (2008). Existential-integrative psychotherapy. New York: Routledge.
84.
Schneider, K.J., & May, R. (1995). The psychology of existence: An integrative, clinical perspective. New York: McGraw-Hill .
85.
Seligman, M.E.P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5-14.
86.
Shafranske, E. P. (Ed.). (1996). Religion and the clinical practice of psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Smith, P.B. (1975). Are there adverse effects of sensitivity training ? Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 15(2), 29-47.
89.
Stang, A. (1969, April 9). The review of the news, p. 16.
90.
Stolorow, R.D. (1976). Psychoanalytic reflections on client-centered therapy in the light of modern conceptins of narcissism. Psychotherapy: Theory Research and Practice, 13, 26-29.
91.
Stripping body and mind. (1968, February 23). Time Magazine, pp. 1-2.
92.
Taylor, E. (1999a). An intellectual renaissance of humanistic psychology ? Journal of Humanistic psychology, 39(2), 7-25.
93.
Taylor, E. (1999b). Shadow culture: Psychology and spirituality in America. Washington, DC: Counterpoint .
94.
Taylor, E.I., & Martin, F. (2001). Humanistic psychology at the crossroads. In K. J. Schneider, J. T. F. Bugental, & J. F. Pierson (Eds.), The handbook of humanistic psychology (pp. 21-27). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
95.
Thomas, H.F. (2001). Keeping person-centered education alive in academic settings. In K. J. Schneider, J. T. F. Bugental, & J. F. Pierson (Eds.), The handbook of humanistic psychology (pp. 555-565). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
96.
Tobin, S.A. (1990). Self psychology as a bridge between existential-humanistic psychology and psychoanalysis. Journal of Humanistic Psychology , 30(1), 14-63.
97.
Tobin, S.A. (1991). A comparison of psychoanalytic self psychology and Carl Rogers's person-centered therapy. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 31(1), 9-33.
98.
Vitz, P. (1977). Psychology as religion: The cult of self-worship . Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdman.
99.
Wadlington, W. (2001). Performative therapy: Postmodernizing humanistic psychology. In K. J. Schneider, J. T. F. Bugental, & J. F. Pierson (Eds.), The handbook of humanistic psychology (pp. 491-501). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
100.
Wampold, B.E. (2001). The great psychotherapy debate: Models, methods, and findings. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
101.
Wampold, B.E. (2007). Psychotherapy: The humanistic (and effective) treatment. American Psychologist, 62, 857-873.
102.
Warmoth, A. (2001). The Old Saybrook 2 report and the outlook for the future. In K. J. Schneider, J. T. F. Bugental, & J. F. Pierson (Eds.), The handbook of humanistic psychology (pp. 649-657). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
103.
Welch, I. D., Tate, G. A., & Richards, F. (Eds.). (1978). Humanistic psychology. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books.
104.
Wertz, F. (1998). The role of the humanistic movement in the history of psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 38(1), 42-70.
105.
Wertz, F. (2001). Humanistic psychology and the qualitative research tradition. In K. J. Schneider, J. T. F. Bugental, & J. F. Pierson (Eds.), The handbook of humanistic psychology (pp. 649-657). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
106.
Whitaker, R. (2002). Mad in America: Bad science, bad medicine, and the enduring mistreatment of the mentally ill. Cambridge, MA: Perseus.
107.
Yalom, I. (1980). Existential psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books.
