How Does Spiritual Intelligence Relate to Mental Health in a Western Sample?

Abstract

This study investigates a recently developed model of spiritual intelligence in relation to the common mental health concerns of depression, anxiety, and substance use. Three-hundred and fifty-three undergraduate psychology students responded to the Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report Inventory, the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale–Revised, the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7, and the Drug, Alcohol, and Nicotine scale. We hypothesized spiritual intelligence would be negatively associated with the study’s mental health outcomes. A secondary aim was to examine the contributions of spiritual intelligence model components to mental health. Overall spiritual intelligence was not associated with anxiety, depression, or substance use. Examination of the relationships between spiritual intelligence components and mental health suggested this model lacks cohesiveness in relation to mental health. While the capacity to critically examine existential issues was associated with increased depression and anxiety, the ability to draw meaning and purpose from experience was associated with improvements in all mental health outcomes. These findings cast doubt on the construct of spiritual intelligence and suggest that existential thinking and the production of meaning may be closely related to mental health. Future research should explore differences in spiritual intelligence components and their associations with mental health among varying religious affiliations.

Keywords

spiritual intelligence spirituality depression anxiety substance use existential thinking meaning making

Religion and spirituality (R/S) have a long and varied history in psychology; while some dismissed these phenomena as mere symptoms of neurosis and psychoticism (Freud, 1907/1961), others advocated for R/S as positive and prosocial means by which humans may create meaning, purpose, and structure in an otherwise subjective and meaningless existence (Allport, 1950; Jung, 1933). Attempting to bring clarity to these opposing views, recent psychological research has revealed that R/S factors can serve as protective factors for mental health conditions (Bonelli & Koenig, 2013). Through these investigations, researchers have clarified aspects of R/S and delineated mechanisms accounting for this beneficial association with mental health. In this process, one distinction that has emerged is that of spirituality and spiritual intelligence (SI), the latter being defined as “mental capacities that comprise the awareness, integration, and adaptive application of non-material and transcendent aspects of one’s existence” (King & DeCicco, 2009, p. 69). Although a wealth of research to date has investigated R/S factors in mental health (for reviews, see Bonelli & Koenig, 2013; Weber & Pargament, 2014), SI has received substantially less attention in Western psychological literature. In the present study, we investigate the relationships between a recently developed model of SI and specific mental health concerns (i.e., depression, anxiety, substance use) in a Western sample of undergraduate students.

Spiritual Intelligence and Mental Health

Recent psychological research on R/S has been marked by a lack of agreement over the nature, definitions, and usefulness of these constructs (Koenig, 2008; MacDonald, 2017; MacDonald et al., 2015; Salander, 2012). Salander (2012) emphasized the need for greater conceptual clarity, noting the common interchangeable use of these terms and the inconsistencies among researchers attempting to distinguish between R/S. Others have remarked on the potential circularity of observed connections between spirituality and psychological well-being, as both constructs are often measured by common factors such as optimism, peacefulness, and meaning (Koenig, 2008; MacDonald, 2017; Salander, 2012). Still others point to a confounding of culture and spirituality, as most existing quantitative instruments and investigations are developed in cultural contexts dominated by the Western Judeo-Christian perspective (MacDonald et al., 2015). Despite these ongoing concerns, there appears to be agreement among some researchers that spirituality is best defined as the personal experience of finding, conserving, and transforming sacred objects and experiences in life (Emmons, 2000; Zinnbauer, Pargament, & Scott, 1999).

The construct of SI has been similarly characterized by controversy among researchers since its conception. Emmons (2000) first advanced the argument for spirituality as a unique set of capacities that can be considered an intelligence under the eight criteria established by Gardner (1993). Expressing his own skepticism with this hypothesis, Gardner (2000) suggested SI to be largely indistinguishable from emotional intelligence and lacking the necessary empirical support. Since the debate over SI began, many have argued for the legitimacy and viability of SI as an independent type of intelligence (e.g., King, Mara, & DeCicco, 2012; Sisk, 2002; Vaughan, 2002; Zohar & Marshall, 2000), and some have developed psychometric measures in the hopes of addressing ongoing questions and furthering our understanding of SI (Amram & Dryer, 2008; King & DeCicco, 2009). Developed from the elements of SI put forth by Emmons (2000), the recent Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report Inventory (SISRI; King & DeCicco, 2009) has become one of the most widely used of these instruments, measuring the spiritual capacities and skills of critical existential thinking (CET), personal meaning production (PMP), transcendental awareness (TA), and conscious state expansion (CSE). Along with Emmons (2000), King and DeCicco (2009) propose that these SI capacities can provide benefits for mental health by facilitating adaptive responses to daily life stressors and deeper spiritual crises.

A growing interest in SI among Eastern psychological researchers has led to preliminary support for the hypothesis that these abilities and capacities related to spiritual experiences provide benefits for mental health. In three separate studies of Iranian adolescents and young adults, increases in SI corresponded to decreases in psychopathology measured in the General Health Questionnaire–Short Form (Bozorgi & Bozorgi, 2016; Monfared & Naderi, 2015; Nemati, Habibi, Vargahan, Mohamadloo, & Ghanbari, 2016). In a sample of Indian adolescents, Sharma and Arif (2015) similarly found increases in SI to correspond with decreases in peer conflict and conduct issues as well as increases in self-esteem and prosocial behaviors. While these studies and others are certainly important findings, the quality and context of existing literature should engender some level of caution. There is a clear lack of consistency in measurement and analysis strategies across the literature; for example, some researchers utilized previously validated measures of SI (e.g., Bozorgi & Bozorgi, 2016), while others have relied on unstandardized instruments lacking in proper validation (e.g., Monfared & Naderi, 2015). More important, as all studies of SI and mental health to date have been conducted in non-Western cultural contexts (i.e., Middle East, India) researchers should be hesitant to generalize the findings of these studies.

Present Study

In the present study, we seek to examine the relationships between SI and three distinct measures of mental health concerns (i.e., depression, anxiety, substance use) in a Western sample of undergraduate students. While numerous studies to date have established promising beneficial connections between SI and mental health, these studies have been conducted in cultural contexts that differ significantly in the nature and composition of R/S factors. As the sample in this study is drawn from a Western population, the findings can provide cross-cultural evidence for the importance of SI in mental health conditions. Furthermore, previous research is characterized by clear methodological flaws that diminish translational value. Addressing these important limitations in the existing literature and attempting to extend previous findings to a Western sample, this study can contribute valuably to our understanding of the existential and spiritual contributions to mental health.

Hypotheses

Based on previous research with SI and mental health (Bozorgi & Bozorgi, 2016; Monfared & Naderi, 2015; Nemati et al., 2016; Sharma & Arif, 2015), total SI scores were expected to be negatively associated with levels of depression and anxiety symptomatology as well as reported frequency of substance use. As previous research utilizing the SISRI only analyzed total scores on the measure, it is unclear how specific spiritual capacities in the SI model proposed by King and DeCicco (2009) may be related to the mental health measures observed in this study. As such, an exploratory aim was to examine the relative contributions of specific SISRI components to depression, anxiety, and substance use.

Method

Participants

Participants, 18 years of age or older, were recruited from psychology courses through a research management system at a 4-year, public liberal arts college in the Northeastern United States. This study represents a partial data analysis of a larger study in which data collection commenced in February of 2015 and ended in May of 2015. The final sample consisted of 353 participants (266 women, 87 men, M_age = 19.42, age range: 18-29 years) whom were mostly full-time students (98.3%), White/Caucasian (69.4%), and Christian (57.8%). Table 1 provides a full listing of sample characteristics.

Table 1.

Frequency Distribution and Cumulative Percentage of Participant Characteristics (N = 353).

Characteristic	Frequency	Percentage
Sex
Female	266	75.4
Male	87	24.6
Age
18	87	24.6
19	124	35.1
20	68	19.3
21	48	13.6
>21	26	7.4
Enrollment status
Full-time	347	98.3
Non-matriculated	6	1.7
Educational level
Freshman	147	41.6
Sophomore	107	30.3
Junior	61	17.3
Senior or higher	38	10.7
Ethnicity
White/Caucasian	245	69.4
Asian	28	7.9
Latino/Hispanic	27	7.6
Indian	21	5.9
Black/African American	16	4.5
Other/more than one ethnicity	16	4.5
Religious affiliation
Christianity	204	57.8
Hinduism	14	3.7
Judaism	13	2.0
Islam	7	0.8
Other	16	3.7
Agnosticism	52	14.7
Atheism	34	9.6
Unaffiliated	10	2.8

Measures

Spiritual Intelligence

The Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report Inventory (SISRI) is a 24-item self-report measure assessing four SI components of CET, PMP, TA, and CSE (King & DeCicco, 2009). Respondents are asked to rate themselves from 0 (not at all true of me) to 4 (completely true of me) on various statements corresponding to SI components. CET is assessed with seven statements (α = .82) such as “I have often questioned or pondered the natural of reality.” PMP is assessed with five statements (α = .83) such as “My ability to find meaning and purpose in life helps me adapt to stressful situations.” TA is assessed with seven statements (α = .84) such as “I recognize aspects of myself that are deeper than my physical body.” CSE is assessed with five statements (α = .91) such as “I can control when I enter higher states of consciousness or awareness.” Scores on each item are summed to produce a total score ranging from 0 to 96. Component scores are calculated by summing each item on the respective scale. Higher scores indicate greater SI or a greater capacity for specific SI skills represented by the subscales. Internal consistency for the SISRI was excellent (α = .92).

Depression

Symptoms of depression were measured using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale–Revised (CESD-R), a 20-item self-report measure assessing the symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder (Eaton, Muntaner, Smith, Tien, & Ybarra, 2004). Respondents are asked to rate how often they experienced various symptoms of depression (e.g., “I could not shake off the blues”) in the past 2 weeks, with responses ranging from 0 (not at all or less than 1 day) to 4 (nearly every day for 2 weeks). Total scores range from 0 to 80, with higher scores indicating higher frequency of depression symptoms. Internal consistency for the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale–Revised was excellent (α = .93).

Anxiety

Anxiety symptoms were measured using the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) scale, a seven-item instrument assessing common symptoms of GAD-7 (Spitzer, Kroenke, Williams, & Löwe, 2006). Respondents are asked to rate the frequency with which they experienced various anxiety (e.g., “Feeling nervous, anxious, or on edge”) over the past 2 weeks, with responses ranging from 0 (not at all) to 3 (nearly every day). Total scores range from 0 to 21, with higher scores indicating the frequency and severity of anxiety symptoms. Internal consistency for the GAD-7 was excellent (α = .90).

Substance Use

Substance use was measured using the Drug, Alcohol, & Nicotine (DAN) scale, a 14-item self-report inventory assessing the use of various psychoactive substances (Kaplin, 2012). Respondents are asked to state the frequency with which they have used specific psychoactive substances (e.g., alcohol, cannabis, methamphetamines, opioids, sedatives) in the past year, ranging from 1 (never) to 9 (daily). Scores on the individual class items are summed to produce a total score ranging from 14 to 126, with higher scores indicating greater substance use. Past psychometric analysis revealed the DAN scale to have acceptable face validity, content validity, and intraclass correlation (Kaplin, Cohen, & Dufort, 2016). Ubiquitous caffeine use among the sample posed a threat to construct validity and was removed from the analysis. Internal consistency for the DAN was acceptable (α = .71).

Data Analytic Plan

All data analyses were conducted with IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 24 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Pearson correlation coefficients were utilized to assess basic associations between total SI scores and mental health outcomes. Multiple linear regression models were utilized to examine the contributions of specific SISRI components to depression and anxiety scores. Given a restriction of range in substance use, a dichotomous characterization of substance use as either low (i.e., below median) or high (i.e., above median) substance use scores was determined to be the most sensible analysis approach. A logistic regression model was utilized to examine the SI component contributions to the likelihood of participants having a low or high level of substance use. Models containing outcomes with covariates were completed hierarchically, with control variables in the first block and predictors in the second block. A-posteriori power analysis with G*Power, version 3.1.9.2, revealed all statistical procedures were adequately powered to detect small to moderate effects at the .05 level. To control Type I error rate increases associated with multiple hypothesis tests, significance thresholds on the main hypotheses and exploratory aims were set at p < .0033 to adjust for a total 15 hypothesis tests.

Procedure

Prior to data collection, this study was approved by the college’s institutional review board. Informed consent was obtained prior to participation, and data collection were conducted by institutionally approved research assistants. Participants completed the study instruments in an on-campus computer lab with Qualtrics® (Qualtrics, Provo, UT), a data-encrypted online research platform. Study instruments were presented using a Latin-squared design to limit ordering effects and contained attention checks to ensure valid responding. On completion, participants were debriefed and provided course credit as compensation.

Results

Descriptive statistics among study variables are presented in Table 2, and bivariate relationships among important demographic characteristics and the main study variables are presented in Table 3. Pearson correlation coefficients examined basic associations of total SI scores with reported depression scores, anxiety scores, and substance use frequency. A weak positive association between SI and depression approached significance (r = .12, p = .031), and 95% bootstrapped confidence intervals (bCIs) confirmed this association to be unreliable, 95% bCIs [−0.00, 0.22]. Furthermore, SI was not associated with either anxiety levels, r = .02, p = .773, 95% bCIs [−0.09, 0.12], or reported frequency of substance use, r = .09, p = .08, 95% bCIs [−0.02, 0.20].

Table 2.

Descriptive Statistics Among Study Variables.

Measure	Min	Max	M	SD
SISRI	8.00	99.00	54.66	15.61
CET	1.00	30.00	13.97	4.76
PMP	2.00	24.00	12.32	3.75
TA	3.00	36.00	20.31	3.75
CSE	0.00	24.00	8.29	4.79
CESD	0.00	65.00	16.29	12.82
GAD	0.00	21.00	6.91	5.08
DAN	13.00	54.00	18.05	5.92

Note. SISRI = Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report Inventory; CET = critical existential thinking; PMP = personal meaning production; TA = transcendental awareness; CSE = conscious state expansion; CESD = Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale; GAD = Generalized Anxiety Disorder; DAN = Drug, Alcohol, and Nicotine Scale.

Table 3.

Bivariate Correlations Among Study Variables and Covariates.

Measure	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
1. Sex	—
2. Age	−.17**	—
3. SISRI	−.11*	.01	—
4. CET	−.20**	.09	.80**	—
5. PMP	−.06	.01	.74**	.43**	—
6. TA	.04	−.06	.88**	.60**	.57**	—
7. CSE	−.15**	.00	.77**	.42**	.48**	.60**	—
8. CESD	−.07	.01	.12**	.28**	−.17**	.09	.09	—
9. GAD	.13*	.02	.02	.13*	−.16**	.05	.02	.60**	—
10. DAN	−.22**	.19**	.09	.15**	−.11*	.06	.15**	.18**	.09	—

p < .05. **p < .01.

Two multiple linear regression models were employed to examine the relative contributions of the SISRI components CET, PMP, TA, and CSE to variability in depression and anxiety. A binary logistic regression model was employed to examine the effect of SISRI components on the likelihood that participants had a high frequency of substance use. Prior to analysis, participants were classified as having low (n = 203) or high (n = 150) substance use, determined by whether total DAN scores were below or above the median score of 17. To determine the reliability and magnitude of observed coefficients, 95% confidence intervals (bCIs) were calculated from 1,000 bootstrapped samples.

To account for influence of participant characteristics, significant demographic predictors of the outcome variables were included in the models. Two independent samples t tests reveal significant differences between both males (M = 5.78, SD = 4.35) and females (M = 7.27, SD = 5.25) in anxiety, t(351) = −2.396, p = .017, as well as males (M = 20.32, SD = 7.92) and females (M = 17.31, SD = 4.90) in substance use, t(351) = 4.223, p < .001. Last, a Pearson correlation coefficient revealed a significant association between age and substance use, r = .192, p < .001.

A multiple linear regression revealed CET and PMP were significant predictors of depression scores. Overall, the four SI components accounted for 18.8% of the variance in depression scores, F(4,358) = 20.172, p < .001. While CET had a moderate to strong positive association with depression, PMP had a moderate to strong negative association with depression (see Table 4). As 95% bCIs for these coefficients do not contain zero, these associations appear to be reliable. Standardized coefficients indicate a 1 standard deviation increase in CET corresponded to a 0.40 standard deviation increase in depression. Inversely, a 1 standard deviation increase in PMP corresponded to a 0.39 standard deviation decrease in depression. However, TA and CSE did not significantly predict of depression scores.

Table 4.

Results From the Multiple Linear Regression Model Estimating Levels of Depression (CESD).

		b	SE	β	t	p	95% bCIs
R² = .188, MSE = 11.163; F(4, 348) = 20.172, p < .001
Intercept	i₁	14.90	2.52		5.905	<.001	[9.61, 20.14]
CET	b₁	1.09	0.17	.40	6.600	<.001	[0.78, 1.40]
PMP	b₂	−1.34	0.21	−.39	−6.445	<.001	[−1.78, −0.82]
TA	b₃	0.03	0.16	.01	0.184	.854	[−0.28, 0.34]
CSE	b₄	0.25	0.17	.09	1.520	.129	[−0.06, 0.56]

Note. SE = standard error; MSE = standard error of the model; bCIs = bootstrapped confidence intervals; CET = critical existential thinking; PMP = personal meaning production; TA = transcendental awareness; CSE = conscious state expansion; CESD = Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale.

A hierarchical multiple linear regression revealed CET and PMP predicted anxiety scores when controlling for participant sex. Initially, participant sex accounted for 1.6% of the variance in anxiety scores, F(1, 351) = 5.743, p = .017. In the second block, the four SI components accounted for an additional 8.6% of the variance in anxiety scores over and above sex, F change (ΔF; 4, 347) = 8.276, p < .001. When controlling for sex, anxiety scores had a weak to moderate positive association with CET, and a moderate negative association with PMP (see Table 5). As 95% bCIs for these coefficients do not contain zero, these associations appear to be reliable. Standardized regression coefficients indicate that with every standard deviation increase in CET, there is a 0.24 standard deviation decrease in anxiety scores. Inversely, a 1 standard deviation increase in PMP corresponded to a 0.30 standard deviation decrease in anxiety scores. TA and CSE did not significantly contribute to anxiety scores when controlling for sex.

Table 5.

Results From the Hierarchical Linear Regression Model Estimating Levels of Anxiety (GAD).

		b	SE	β	t	p	95% bCIs
Block 1: R² = .016, MSE = 5.044; F(1, 351) = 5.743, p = .017
Intercept	i₁	5.78	0.54		10.692	<.001	[4.91, 6.66]
Sex	b₁	1.49	0.62	.13	2.396	.017	[0.42, 2.53]
Block 2: ΔR² = .089, ΔF(1, 347) = 8.276, p < .001; R² = .102, MSE = 4.847, F(5,347) = 7.685, p = .001
Intercept	i₁	5.67	1.17		4.839	<.001	[3.39, 8.01]
Sex	b₁	1.84	0.64	.16	2.879	.004	[0.58, 3.09]
CET	b₂	0.26	0.07	.24	3.655	<.001	[0.12, 0.34]
PMP	b₃	−0.40	0.09	−.30	−4.635	<.001	[−0.56, −0.23]
TA	b₄	0.06	0.07	.07	0.813	.417	[−0.07, 0.19]
CSE	B₅	0.00	0.07	.00	0.061	.951	[–0.15, 0.14]

Last, a hierarchical binary logistic regression revealed PMP-affected substance use categorization above and beyond significant covariates. In the first block, sex and age were found to account for 4.4% (Nagelkerke R²) of the variance in high or low substance use categorization, χ²(2) = 11.708, p = .003. In the second block, the four SI components accounted for an additional 4.3% (Nagelkerke R²) of the variability in substance use frequency categorization, Δχ²(2) = 11.708, p = .003. Increases in PMP were associated with an increased likelihood of being in the low substance use category (see Table 6). As a 95% bCI for this coefficient does not contain zero, this appears to be a reliable association. An odds ratio of .88 indicates one unit increase in PMP reduces the odds of reporting a high level of substance use by 12%. CET, TA, and CSE did not contribute to the likelihood of being in either the low or high substance use categories.

Table 6.

Results From the Hierarchical Logistic Regression Model Predicting Low (n = 203) and High (n = 150) Substance Use (DAN).

		b	SE	Wald	p	Exp(B)	95% bCIs
Block 1: Nagelkerke R² = .044; χ²(2) = 11.708, p = .003
Intercept	i₁	−0.311	1.66	3.497	.061	0.05	[−7.03, 0.13]
Age	b₁	0.17	0.08	4.043	.044	1.18	[0.01, 0.37]
Sex	b₂	−0.60	0.25	5.553	.018	0.55	[−1.11, −0.10]
Block 2: Nagelkerke ΔR² = .034, Δχ²(4) = 12.039, p = .017; Nagelkerke R² = .087, χ²(6) = 23.748, p = .001
Intercept	i₁	−3.02	1.79	2.856	.091	0.05	[−7.77, 0.78]
Age	b₁	0.175	0.09	4.052	.044	1.19	[−0.00, 0.40]
Sex	b₂	−0.572	0.28	4.329	.037	0.56	[−1.12, −0.04]
CET	b₃	0.05	0.03	2.045	.153	1.05	[−0.02, 0.11]
PMP	b₄	−0.12	0.04	10.008	.002	0.88	[−0.21, −0.06]
TA	b₅	0.02	0.03	0.674	.412	1.02	[−0.04, 0.08]
CSE	b₆	0.02	0.03	0.260	.610	1.02	[−0.05, 0.09]

Note. SE = standard error; Exp(B) = odds ratios for predictors; 95% bCIs = bootstrapped confidence intervals for model coefficients; CET = critical existential thinking; PMP = personal meaning production; TA = transcendental awareness; CSE = conscious state expansion; DAN = Drug, Alcohol, and Nicotine scale.

Discussion

The present study examined relationships between SI and three measures of mental health conditions (i.e., depression, anxiety, substance use). We hypothesized that SI would be negatively associated with these mental health outcomes, such that increases in SI would correspond to decreases in depression, anxiety, and substance use. Contrasting our expectations and previous research (Bozorgi & Bozorgi, 2016; Monfared & Naderi, 2015; Nemati et al., 2016; Sharma & Arif, 2015), total SI scores were not associated with depression, anxiety, or substance use. These conflicting findings may be explained by methodological approaches or cultural consistency of samples in previous investigations. All studies to date investigating SI and mental health have been conducted in settings such as Iran or India, countries where the nature of spirituality and the utilization of spiritual capacities in daily life may differ significantly from Western populations (Winston, Sumathi, & Maher, 2013). Additionally, previous studies utilized varying definitions of SI and often lacked clearly defined mental health outcomes. Due to either translational or methodological issues, it is often not clear which symptoms or mental health disorders were examined. In light of these inconsistencies, this study’s secondary aim of exploring the relative contributions of SI components to mental health variability can provide a more detailed understanding of these divergent findings.

CET, or the capacity to critically examine existential or metaphysical issues such as meaning and the nature of reality, was found to correspond with increases in depression and anxiety, but did not contribute to the likelihood of elevated substance use. CET had a weak to moderate impact in increasing anxiety and a moderate to strong impact in increasing depression, and both associations appear to be reliable and meaningful. These results are consistent with a variety of previous theory and research on the connection between existential issues and psychological functioning. Some psychologists have emphasized the processing of existential issues, and the psychological responses developed to address them, as integral to mental health (May, 1950; Yalom, 1980). More recent empirically validated theories such as terror management theory (Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, 1986) and anxiety buffer disruption theory (Pyszczynski & Kesebir, 2011) posit that, without the proper cultural buffers to address them, exposure to difficult existential issues such as mortality can increase the risk of psychopathology. A recent study conducted by Winston et al. (2013) provides support for these perspectives, finding that greater existential engagement corresponds with increases in multiple categories of psychopathology. Furthermore, undergraduates may be particularly susceptible to this association, as they are commonly in the process of developing worldviews and lack satisfactory answers to ultimate concerns of human existence such as the meaning of life and death (Gutierrez & Park, 2014).

PMP, or the ability to derive meaning and purpose from one’s experience, was found to have beneficial relationships with the three mental health outcomes observed in this study. PMP had a slightly stronger impact in decreasing depression compared with moderate impacts in decreasing anxiety and substance use, and these associations appear to be reliable and meaningful. These findings indicate that an increased ability to extract meaning and purpose from life experiences corresponds to decreases in depression, anxiety, and substance use. Psychologists have traditionally emphasized the development of life purpose and meaning as an important factor in mental health (Frankl, 1959; Yalom, 1980), and a wealth research from the past three decades supports the suggestion that the experience of a purposeful and meaning-driven life is important to healthy psychological functioning (see Steger, 2012, for a review). The development of purpose and meaning in life may serve a dual function of ameliorating negative aspects of human existence (e.g., death, loneliness) and facilitating positive emotions and experiences that make life more enjoyable and worth living (Wong, 2013). Consistent with this possibility, study participants reporting a greater ability to derive meaning from their experience also reported less psychological distress (i.e., depression, anxiety) and were at lower risk for elevated substance use.

CSE and TA were unrelated to symptoms of depression and anxiety, and did not contribute to the risk of increased substance use. Whether an individual reported being able to willfully fluctuate between conscious states, or recognize dimensions of themselves and existence beyond the material, remained independent of reported mental health. It is unclear how these findings relate to the existing literature. As we noted earlier, previous studies utilizing the SISRI only examined total SI scores in relation to mental health (e.g., Bozorgi & Bozorgi, 2016), making it impossible to ascertain which SI components contributed most to their findings.

These findings provide important insights into the relationship between SI and mental health, and more generally, address the cohesiveness of this SI model with respect to mental health in a Western sample. Overall, this model developed by King and DeCicco (2009) did not appear to be a unified construct when tested against these common mental health concerns. When examining total SI scores, none of the tested relationships were significant. An analysis of SI components indicates that contradictory associations observed for CET and PMP may have contributed to the nonsignificance of our main hypotheses, as all SI components considered together explained a significant amount of outcome variance. Thus, we believe this model is best interpreted as containing two distinct factors that are deeply and differentially interconnected with mental health. It is important to acknowledge there may be differences in R/S factors that influenced the divergence of our findings with previous literature. For example, levels of SI and constituent capacities may vary by an individual’s religious affiliation and involvement. However, provided the limited frequency of non-Christian faiths in our sample, it was not feasible to examine SI levels among different religions. This remains an important question, and future research should aim to gather diverse samples that allow for an examination of differences in SI among various religions.

Limitations and Future Directions

While this research contributes valuably to existing literature on SI, certain limitations should be considered when drawing conclusions from our findings. The cross-sectional study design did not allow for causal explanations of study variables, and it cannot be determined how changes in certain variables related to observed changes in others. As such, this study was not able to address the long-standing concern of circularity in R/S research (Koenig, 2008; Salander, 2012). The extent to which these constructs are measuring the same underlying factor presents a significant concern for the validity of this research. Furthermore, the self-report methods utilized are susceptible to typical social desirability bias and response sets (Kline, 2005). Last, our sample was drawn from a homogeneous population of undergraduates and consisted heavily of female participants, posing a threat to the generalizability of these findings. To address these limitations, future researchers should consider utilizing narrative approaches and standardized clinical interviews in longitudinal or experimental designs with more diverse samples.

Despite limitations, our results shed light on whether SI is an important factor in the common mental health concerns of depression, anxiety, and substance use. The conceptualization of SI developed by King and DeCicco (2009), and investigated here, does not appear cohesive when examining mental health in Western individuals. While previous research has revealed consistent salutatory relationships between SI and mental health, our results suggest that methodological issues or cultural differences diminish their generalizability to a Western context. Consistent with past theory and research, the engagement and contemplation of existential issues and the ability to draw meaning from experiences contributed were found to be important factors in mental health. These findings provide empirical support that the effectiveness of psychotherapeutic approaches to depression, anxiety, and substance use can be augmented through an exploration of a client’s understanding of their life purpose and an ability to draw meaning from experiences. However, as it is not yet clear what factors modulate the negative impact of existential engagement, exploring these topics may have the potential to sustain or contribute to mental health concerns. Future research should attempt to replicate these findings and investigate mechanisms underlying inconsistencies of our findings with the SI literature. Future investigations of the effectiveness of different responses to the critical issues of human existence, and the facilitation of meaning making from life experiences, can contribute to our ability to facilitate growth and alleviating suffering in the psychotherapeutic process.

Footnotes

Authors’ Note

Daniel Kaplin holds the copyright to a psychometric instrument utilized in this study, the Drug, Alcohol, and Nicotine (DAN) scale. Portions of this research were presented as a poster at the 124th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association in Denver, CO on August 4th, 2016. Derek Giannone is now at Rocky Mountain MIRECC, Department of Veterans Affairs, Denver, CO, USA. Daniel Kaplin is now at Department of Psychology, Kean University, Union, NJ, USA.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Derek A. Giannone is currently a clinical research coordinator for the Rocky Mountain Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center (MIRECC) of the Department of Veterans Affairs in Denver, CO. After receiving his bachelor of arts in psychology from the College of New Jersey in 2015, he completed his master of science in psychology from Drexel University in 2017. His research interests include the role of spirituality and religiousness in mental health as well as suicide and posttraumatic growth in military populations.

Daniel Kaplin earned his PhD in 2014 in clinical psychology from Walden University. Currently, he is a lecturer at Kean University and adjunct professor at the College of Staten Island. His academic and clinical performance has led to numerous awards, scholarships, and grants. Moreover, he had published several articles and book chapters on substance abuse, religiosity/spirituality, multiculturalism, antisemitism, and the advancement of the field of psychology through prescriptive authority.

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