The purpose of this study was to compare three variables in terms of how well they predict orthographic functioning. To this end, the authors examined the relative contributions of rapid automatic naming, exposure to print, and visual processing to a composite measure of orthographic functioning in a heterogeneous group of 8- to 12-year-old children. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that rapid naming, exposure to print, and visual processing were each predictive of orthographic functioning when controlling for the other variables as well as vocabulary knowledge and phonological awareness. Thus, it appears that both linguistic and visual abilities are related to orthographic functioning.
Adams, M.J. ( 1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press .
2.
Allington, R.L. ( 1984). Content coverage and contextual reading in reading groups . Journal of Reading Behavior, 16, 85-96.
3.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., Text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
4.
Au, A., & Lovegrove, W. ( 2006). Rapid visual processing by college students in reading irregular words and phonologically regular pseudowords presented singly and in contiguity. Annals of Dyslexia, 56, 335-360.
5.
Barker, T.A., Torgesen, J.K., & Wagner, R.K. ( 1992). The role of orthographic processing skills on five different reading tasks. Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 334-345.
6.
Berninger, V. (Ed.). (1994). Varieties of orthographic knowledge: Theoretical and developmental issues (Vol. 1). Dordrecht , the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.
7.
Berninger, V.W., Cartwright, A.C., Yates, C.M., Swanson, H.L., & Abbott, R.D. ( 1994). Developmental skills related to writing and reading acquisition in the intermediate grades: Shared and unique functional systems . Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 6, 161-196.
8.
Bieger, E. ( 1978). Effectiveness of visual training of letters and words on reading skills of non-readers. Journal of Educational Research , 71, 157-161.
9.
Boder, E. ( 1973). Developmental dyslexia: A diagnostic approach based on three atypical reading-spelling patterns. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 15, 663-687.
10.
Booth, J.R., Perfetti, C.A., MacWhinney, B., & Hunt, S.B. ( 2000). The association of rapid temporal perception with orthographic and phonological processing in children and adults with reading impairment . Scientific Studies of Reading, 4, 101-132.
11.
Bowers, P.G. ( 1995). Tracing symbol naming speed’s unique contribution to reading disabilities over time. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 7, 189-216.
12.
Bowers, P., Golden, J., Kennedy, A., & Young, A. ( 1994). Limits upon orthographic knowledge due to processes indexed by naming speed. In V. W. Berninger (Ed.), The varieties of orthographic knowledge I: Theoretical and developmental issues (pp. 173-218). Dordtecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.
13.
Bowers, P.G., Sunseth, K., & Golden, J. ( 1999). The route between rapid naming and reading progress . Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 31-53.
14.
Bowey, J.A., & Muller, D. ( 2005). Phonological recoding and rapid orthographic learning in third-graders’ silent reading: A critical test of the self-teaching hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 92, 203-219. Carrow-Woolfolk, E. (1999). Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
15.
Chase, C.H. ( 1996). A visual deficit model in developmental dyslexia . In C. H. Chase, G. D. Rosen, & G. F. Sherman (Eds.), Developmental dyslexia: Neural, cognitive, and genetic mechanisms (pp. 127-156). Timonium, MD: York Press.
16.
Chateau, D., & Jared, D. ( 2000). Exposure to print and word recognition processes . Memory & Cognition, 28, 143-153.
17.
Cornelissen, P.L., & Hansen, P.C. ( 1998). Motion detection, letter position encoding, and single word reading. Annals of Dyslexia, 48, 155-188.
18.
Corcos, E., & Willows, D.M. ( 1993). The role of visual processing in good and poor readers’ utilization of orthographic information in letter strings. In S. F. Wright & R. Groner (Eds.), Facets of dyslexia and its remediation: Studies in visual processing (3rd ed., pp. 95-106). Amsterdam , the Netherlands: North-Holland.
19.
Cunningham, A.E., Perry, K.E., & Stanovich, K.E. (2001). Converging evidence for the concept of orthographic processing. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 14, 549-568.
20.
Cunningham, A.E., & Stanovich, K.E. (1990). Assessing print exposure and orthographic skills in children: A quick measure of reading experience . Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 733-740.
21.
Cunningham, A.E., & Stanovich, K.E. (1997). Early reading acquisition and its relation to reading experience and ability 10 years later. Developmental Psychology, 33, 934-945.
22.
Cunningham, A.E., & Stanovich, K.E. (1998). The impact of print exposure on word recognition. In J. L. Metsala & L Ehri (Eds.), Word recognition in beginning literacy (pp. 235-262). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
23.
DeFries, J.C., Singer, S.M., Foch, T.T., & Lewitter, F.I. (1978). Familial nature of reading disability. British Journal of Psychiatry, 132, 361-367.
24.
de Jong, P.F., Bitter, D.J., Van Setten, M., & Marinus, E. ( 2009). Does phonological recoding occur during silent reading, and is it necessary for orthographic learning?Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 104, 267-282.
25.
de Jong, P.F., & Vrielink, L.O. (2004). Rapid automatic naming: Easy to measure, hard to improve (quickly). Annals of Dyslexia , 54, 65-88.
26.
Eden, G.F., Stein, J.F., Wood, M.H., & Wood, F.B. ( 1995). Verbal and visual problems in reading disability . Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28, 272-290.
27.
Eden, G.F., Stein, J.F., Wood, M.H., & Wood, F.B. ( 1996). Differences in visuospatial judgment in reading-disabled and normal children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 82, 155-177.
28.
Frost, R. ( 1998). Toward a strong phonological theory of visual word recognition: True issues and false trails. Psychological Bulletin, 123, 71-99.
29.
Gardner, M.F. ( 1996). Test of Visual-Perceptual Skills-Revised (TVPS-R): Manual . Novato, CA: Academic Therapy Publications .
30.
Gough, P.B., Juel, C., & Griffith, P. ( 1992). Reading, spelling, and the orthographic cipher . In P. Gough, L. Ehri, & R. Treiman (Eds.), Reading acquisition (pp. 35-48). Hillsdale : NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
31.
Hagiliassis, N., Pratt, C., & Johnston, M. ( 2006). Orthographic and phonological processes in reading . Reading and Writing, 19, 235-263.
32.
Hinshaw, S.P., Carte, E.T., Fan, C., Jassy, J.S., & Owens, E.B. ( 2007). Neuropsychological functioning of girls with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder followed prospectively into adolescence: Evidence for continuing deficits? Neuropsychology, 21, 263-273.
33.
Kessler, B. & Treiman, R. ( 2003). Is English spelling chaotic? Misconceptions concerning its irregularity. Reading Psychology, 24, 267-289.
34.
Kyte, C.S., & Johnson, C.J. ( 2006). The role of phonological recoding in orthographic learning . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 93, 166-185.
35.
Manis, F.R., Doi, L.M., & Bhadha , B. ( 2000). Naming speed, phonological awareness, and orthographic knowledge in second graders. Journal of Learning Disabilities , 33, 325-333, 374.
36.
Manis, F.R., Seidenberg, M.S., & Doi, L.M. (1999). See Dick RAN: Rapid naming and the longitudinal prediction of reading subskills in first and second graders . Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 129-157.
37.
Mann, V.A., Tobin, P., & Wilson, R. ( 1987). Measuring phonological awareness through the invented spelling of kindergarten children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly , 33, 365-391.
38.
McDowell, J.A., Schumm, J.S., & Vaughn, S. ( 1993). Assessing exposure to print: Development of a measure for primary children. National Reading Conference Yearbook, 42, 101-107.
39.
Morton, J. ( 1969). The interaction of information in word recognition . Psychological Review, 76, 165-178.
40.
Nelson, J.R., Benner, G.J., & Gonzalez, J. ( 2005). An investigation of the effects of a prereading intervention on the early literacy skills of children at risk of emotional disturbance and reading problems. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 13, 3-12.
41.
Olson, R., Forsberg, H., Wise, B., & Rack, J. ( 1994). Measurement of word recognition, orthographic, and phonological skills. In G. R. Lyon (Ed.), Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities: New views on measurement issues (pp. 243-277). Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
42.
Olson, R.K., Kliegl, R., Davidson, B., & Foltz, G. ( 1985). Individual and developmental differences in reading disability . In T. Waller (Ed.), Reading research: Advances in theory and practice (Vol. 4, pp. 1-64). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
43.
Reynolds, C.R., & Kamphaus, R.W. (2004) Behavior assessment system for children (2nd ed.). Circle Pines, MN: AGS Assessments .
44.
Rucklidge, J.J. ( 2006). Gender differences in neuropsychological functioning of New Zealand adolescents with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 53, 47-66.
45.
Seidenberg, M.S., & McClelland, J.L. (1989). A distributed, developmental model of visual word recognition and naming. Psychological Review, 96, 523-568.
46.
Share, D.L. ( 1995). Phonological recording and self-teaching: Sine qua non of reading acquisition. Cognition, 55, 151-218.
47.
Share, D.L. ( 1999). Phonological recoding and orthographic learning: A direct test of the self teaching hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 72, 95-129.
48.
Stanovich, K.E. ( 1985). Explaining the variance in reading ability in terms of psychological processes: What have we learned? Annals of Dyslexia , 35, 67-96.
49.
Stanovich, K.E. ( 1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 360-407.
50.
Stanovich, K.E., & Siegel, L.S. ( 1994). The phenotypic performance profile of reading-disabled children: A regression-based test of the phonological-core variable-difference model. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 24-53.
51.
Stanovich, K.E., & West, R.F. ( 1989). Exposure to print and orthographic processing . Reading Research Quarterly, 24, 402-433.
52.
Stein, J., & Talcott, J. ( 1999). Impaired neuronal timing in developmental dyslexia-The magnocellular hypothesis. Dyslexia, 5, 59-77.
53.
Sunseth, K., & Bowers, P.G. ( 2002). Rapid naming and phonemic awareness: Contributions to reading, spelling, and orthographic knowledge. Scientific Studies of Reading, 6, 401-429.
54.
Talcott, J.B., Witton, C., Hebb, G.S., Stoodley, C.J., Westwood, E.A., France, S.J., & Stein, J.F. ( 2002). On the relationship between dynamic visual auditory processing and literacy skills: Results from a large primary-school study . Dyslexia, 8, 204-225.
55.
Torgesen, J.K., Wagner, R.K., Rashotte, C.A., Burgess, S., & Hecht, S. ( 1997). Contributions of phonological awareness and rapid automatic naming ability to the growth of word reading skills in second- to fifth-grade children. Scientific Studies of Reading, 1, 161-185.
56.
Treiman, R. ( 1993). Beginning to spell: A study of first grade children . New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
57.
Valdois, S., Bosse, M., & Tainturier, M. (2004). The cognitive deficits responsible for developmental dyslexia: Review of evidence for a selective visual attentional disorder. Dyslexia: An International Journal of Research and Practice, 10, 339-363.
58.
Vellutino, F.R. ( 1979). Dyslexia: Theory and research. Boston, MA: MIT Press.
59.
Vellutino, F.R., Fletcher, J.M., Snowling, M.J., & Scanlon, D.M. ( 2004). Specific reading disability (dyslexia): What have we learned in the past four decades? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 2-40.
60.
Wagner, R.K., & Torgesen, J.K. (1987). The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 192-212.
61.
Wagner, R.K., Torgesen, J.K., & Rashotte, C.A. (1999). The Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (examiners’ manual). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
62.
Weschler, D. ( 1991). Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children (3rd ed., manual). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corp.
63.
Weschler, D. ( 2003). Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children (4th ed., administration/scoring manual ). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corp.
64.
Wilmer, J.B., Richardson, A.J., Chen, Y., & Stein, J.F. ( 2004). Two visual motion processing deficits in developmental dyslexia associated with different reading skills deficits. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16, 528-540.
65.
Woodcock, R.W., McGrew, K.S., & Mather , N. ( 2001). Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement. Itasca, IL: Riverside Publishing.
66.
Woodrome, S.E., & Johnson, K.E. ( 2009). The role of visual discrimination in the learning-to read process. Reading & Writing, 22, 117-131.
