Most proposals describing the fundamental nature of learning disabilities have been single paradigm notions emphasizing either intrinsic or extrinsic factors. These descriptions generally lack explanatory power and fail to provide a comprehensive statement. This paper describes the learning disabled child as a disassociated learner in the sense of a student not actively involved in the learning process. The description is based on a framework incorporating knowledge of the normal teaching-learning process as well as theoretical ideas about correlates of learning disabilities. The framework shows how it may be logically conceptualized that some children dissassociate themselves from academic learning and come to be termed learning disabled.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Adelman, H.S. (1971). The not so specific learning disability population. Exceptional Children, 37, 528–533.
2.
Allington, R.L. (1980). Teacher interruption behaviors during primary-grade oral reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 72, 371–377.
3.
Ames, L.B. (1968). Learning disabilities: The developmental point of view. In H. Myklebust (Ed.), Progress in learning disabilities (Vol. I).New York: Grune & Stratton.
4.
Anderson, L.W, (Ed.) (1984). Time and school learning.New York: St. Martin's Press.
5.
Anderson, G. & Walberg, H. (1974). Learning environments. In H. Walberg (Ed.), Evaluating educational performance: A sourcebook of methods, instruments, and examples.Berkeley, Calif.: McCuthan.
6.
Atkinson, J.W & Feather, N.T (Eds.). (1966). A theory of achievement motivation.New York: Wiley.
7.
Backman, C.W. & Secord, P.F. (1968). A social psychological view of education.New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.
8.
Balow, B., Rubin, R. & Rosen. M. (1975—1976). Perinatal events as precursors of reading disability. Reading Research Quarterly, 11, 36–71.
9.
Bateman, B. (1974). Educational implications of minimal brain dysfunction. Reading Teacher., 27, 622–668.
10.
Bender, L. (1957). Specific reading disability as a maturational lag. Bulletin of the Orton Society, 7, 9–18.
11.
Bennett, S.N. (1976). Teaching styles and pupil progress.London: Open Books.
12.
Bennett, S.N. (1978). Recent research on teaching: A dream, a belief, and a model. British Journal of Educational Psychology., 48, 127–147.
13.
Bender, P. & McClain, J. (1976). A mulitraitmultimethod analysis of reflection-impulsivity. Child Development, 47, 218–226.
14.
Berliner, D.C. (1979). Tempus educare. In P. Peterson & H. Walberg (Eds.), Research on teaching: Concepts, findings and implications.Berkeley, CA: McCuthan.
15.
Berliner, D.C.Gage, N.L. (1976). The psychology of teaching methods. In N. Gage (Ed.), The psychology of teaching methods: The 75 th Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
16.
Berlyne, D.E., (1965). Curiosity and education. In J. Krumholtz (Ed.), Learning and the educational process.Chicago: Rand-McNally.
17.
Birch, H.G. & Belmont, L. (1964). Auditory-visual integration in normal and retarded readers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 34, 852–861.
18.
Black, M. (1962). Models and metaphors.Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
19.
Bloom, B.S. (1964). Stability and change in human characteristics.New York: John Wiley.
20.
Bloom, B. S. (1976). Human characteristics and school learning.New York: McGraw-Hill.
21.
Bloom, B.S. (1980). All our children learn.New York: McGraw-Hill.
22.
Borg, W.R. (1980). Time and school learning. In C. Denham & A. Liberman (Eds.), Time to learnWashington, D.C.: National Institute of Education.
23.
Brucht, G.H. (1970). Experimental factors related to aptinade-treatment interactions. Review of Education Research, 40, 627–645.
24.
Brucht, G.H., & Hopkins, K.D. (1972). Stability of general academic achievement. In G. Bracht, K. Hopkins & J. Stanley (Eds.), Perspectives in educational and psychological measurement.Engle wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
25.
Brunn, C. (1976). Teacher expectations: Socio-psychological dynamics. Review of Educational Research, 46, 185–213.
26.
, J. & Evertson, C. (1976). Learning from teaching: A developmental perspective.Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
27.
, J. & Good, T. (1974). Teacher-student relationships: Causes and consequences.New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
28.
, J. & Putnam, J. (1979). Classroom management in the elementary grades. In D. Duke (Ed.), Classroom management: The 78th Year-book of the National Society for the Study of Education. Part II. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
29.
, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction.New York: Norton.
30.
, J. H. (1981). Social behaviors of learning disabled children. In J. Gottlieb & S. Strichart (Eds.), Developmental theory and research in learning disabilities.Baltimore: University Park Press.
31.
, K.G & Wallach, G.P (Eds.). (1982). Language disorders and learning disabilities. Topics in Language Disorders.Rockville, MD: Aspen.
32.
, J.H., Hutt, W.G., & Graeber, A.D. (1982). Time spent in learning: Implications from research. Elementary School Journal, 82, 471–480.
33.
, J.B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College Record, 64, 723–733.
34.
, J.B. (1984). The model of school learning: Progress of an idea. In L. Anderson (Ed.), Time and school learning.New York: St. Martin's Press.
35.
, J.A. & Potter, D.A. (1980). School and effects: An interrelational model. Review of Educational Research, 50, 273–291.
36.
, S.D. (1966). Minimal brain dysfunction children. Terminology and identification. Monograph No. 3, U.S. Public Health Service Publication No. 1415. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
37.
, E. (1972). Sociology and the classroom: the condition for teacher-student interaction. Review of Educational Research, 42, 441–452.
38.
, S.A. (1971). Dyspedagogia as a cause of retardation: Definition and treatment. In , Bateman (Ed.), Learning disorders, Vol. 4. : Special Child Publications.
, C. (1971). Social and emotional factors learning disabilities. In H. Myklebust (Ed.), Progress in learning disabilities (Vol. II). New York: Grune & Stratton.
41.
, W.W. & Leinhardt, G. (198). The instructional dimensions study. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 2, 7–25.
42.
Cratty, B.J. (1981). Sensory-motor and perceptual-motor theories and practices. An overview and evaluation. In R. Walk & H. Pick (Eds.), Inter-sensory perception and sensory interaction.New York: Plenum.
43.
Cravioto, J. & DeLicardie, E. R. (1975). Environmental and nutritional deprivation in children with learning disabilities. In W. Cruickshank & D. Hallahan (Eds.), Perceptual and learning disabilities in children, Vol. 2: Research and theory.Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
44.
Cronbach, L.J. & Snow, R.E. (1977). Aptitudes and instructional methods: A handbook for research on interactions.New York: Irvington.
45.
Denham, C & Lieberman, A (Eds.). (1980). Time to learn.Washington, DC: National Institute of Education.
46.
deQuiros, J.B. (1976). Diagnosis of vestibular disorders in the learning disabled. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 9, 39–47.
47.
Doehring, D.G. (1978). The tangled web of behavioral research on developmental dyslexia. In A. Benton & D. Pearl (Eds.), Dyslexia: An appraisal of current knowledge.New York: Oxford University Press, 123—125.
48.
Dunkin, M.J. & Biddle, B.J. (1974). The study of teaching.New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
49.
Durkin, D. (1978/79). What classroom observations reveal about reading comprehension instruction. Reading Research Quarterly, 14, 481–533.
50.
Fanelli, G. (1977). Locus of control. In S. Ball (Ed.), Motivation in education.New York: Academic Press.
51.
Fisher, C.W., Berliner, D.C., Filby, N.N., Marliave, R., Cahen, L.S., & Dishaw, M.M. (1980). Teacher behaviors, academic learning time, and student achievement: An overview. In C. Denham & A. Lieberman (Eds.), Time to learn.Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Education.
52.
Fraser, E. (1959). Home environment and the school.London: University of London Press.
53.
Frederick, W.C. & Walberg, H.J. (1980). Learning as a function of time. Journal of Educational Research, 73, 183–194.
54.
Freeburg, N. & Payne, D. (1967). Parental influence on cognitive development in early childhood: A review. Child Development, 38, 65–87.
55.
Frostig, M. (1975). The role of perception in the integration of psychological functions. In W. Cruickshank & D. Hallahan (Eds.), Perceptual and learning disabilities in children. Vol. I: Psychoeducational practices.Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
56.
Frostig, M. & Horne, D. (1964). The Frostig program for the development of visual perception.Chicago: Follett.
57.
Gaddes, W.H. (1980). Learning disabilities and brain function.New York: Springer-Verlag.
58.
Gage, N.LGage, N.L (Ed.), (1976). The psychology of teaching methods: The 75th Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
59.
Gage, N.L. (1978). The scientific basis of the art of teaching.New York: Teachers College Press.
60.
Gagne, R.M. (1977). The conditions of learning (3rd ed.).New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
61.
Garai, J.E. & Scheinfeld, A. (1968). Sex differences in mental and behavioral traits. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 77, 189–299.
62.
Gettinger, M. (1984). Achievement as a function of time spent in learning and time needed for learning. American Educational Research Journal, 21, 617–628.
63.
Glaser, R. (1976). Components of a psychology of instruction: Toward a science of design. Review of Educational Research, 46, 1–24.
64.
Glaser, R. (1977). Adaptive education: Individualized diversity and learning.New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
65.
Glass, G.V., Cahen, L.S., Smith, M.L. & Filby, N.N. (1982). School class size: Research and policy.Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE.
66.
Good, T. (1979). Classroom expectations: Teacher-pupil interactions. In J. McMillan (Ed.), The social psychology of school learning.New York: Academic Press.
67.
Good, T., Biddle, B. & Brophy, J. (1975). Teachers make a difference.New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
68.
Green, O.C. & Perlman, S.M. (1971). Endocrinology and disorders of learning. In H. Myklebust (Ed.), Progress in learning disabilities (Vol. 2).New York: Grune & Stratton.
69.
Gump, P. (1978). School environments. In I. Altman & J. Wohlwill (Eds.), Children and the environment.New York: Plenum.
70.
Guyer, B.L. & Friedman, M.P. (1975). Hemispheric processing and cognitive styles in learning disabled and normal children. Child Development, 46, 658–668.
71.
Hall, R.V., Delquadri, J., Greenwood, C.R., & Thurston, L. (1982). The importance of opportunity to respond to children's academic success. In E. Edgar, N. Haring, J. Jenkins & C. Pious (Eds.), Mentally handicapped children: Education and training.Baltimore: University Park Press.
72.
Hamachek, D.E. (1978). Encounters with the self (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
73.
Harnischfeger, A. & Wiley, D.E. (1976). The teaching learning process in elementary schools: A synoptic view. Curriculum.
74.
Hess, R. (1970). Class and ethnic influences upon socialization. In P. Mussen (Ed.), Carmichael's manual of child psychology (3rd ed., Vol. 2). New York: Wiley.
75.
Hilton, T.L. (1979). ETS study of academic prediction and growth. In J. Milholland (Ed.), New directions for testing and measurement.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
76.
Hopkins, K.D. & Bracht, G.H. (1975). Ten-year stability of verbal and nonverbal IQ scores. American Educational Research Journal, 12, 469–477.
77.
Hunt, J. McV. (1961). Intelligence and experience. New York: Wiley.
78.
Hyman, H.H., Wright, C.R. & Reed, J.S. (1975). The enduring effects of education.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
79.
Jackson, P.W. (1968). Life in classrooms.New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
80.
Jensen, A.R. (1967). Varieties in individual differences in learning. In R. Gagne (Ed.), Learning and individual differences.Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
81.
Joe, V. (1971). Review of the internal-external control construct as a personality variable. Psychological Reports, 28, 619–640.
82.
Joyce, B. & Weil, M. (1972). Models of teaching.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
83.
Kagan, J. & Kagan, N. (1970). Individual variation in cognitive processes. In P. Mussen (Ed.), Carmichael's manual of child psychology (3rd ed., Vol. I). New York: Wiley.
84.
Kaplan, A. (1964). The conduct of inquiry: Methodology for behavioral science. San Francisco, CA: Chandler.
85.
Karweit, N.L. (1980). Time in school. In research in sociology of education and socialization: An annual compilation of research.Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
86.
Kass, C.E. (1966). Psycholinguistic disabilities of children with reading problems. Exceptional Children, 32, 533–539.
87.
Kavale, K.A. (1980). Auditory-visual integration and its relationship to reading achievement: A meta-analysis. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 51, 947–955.
88.
Kavale, K.A. (1981). The relationship between auditory perceptual skills and reading ability: A meta-analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 14, 539–546.
89.
Kavale, K. (1982). Meta-analysis of the relationship between visual perceptual skills and reading achievement. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 15, 42–51.
90.
Kavale, K.A., & Forness, S.R. (1985). Learning disability and the history of science: Paradigm or paradox?Remedial and Special Education, 6, 12–23.
Keogh, B.K. & Donlon, G. (1972). Field dependence, impulsivity, and learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 5, 331–336.
93.
Keogh, B.K. & Margolis, J. (1976). Learn to labor and wait: Attention problems of children with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 9, 276–286.
94.
Keogh, J.F. (1981). A movement development framework and a perceptual-cognitive perspective. In G. Brooks (Ed.), Perspectives on the academic discipline of physical education.Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
95.
Keogh, J. (1982). The study of movement learning disabilities. In J. Das, R. Mulcahy & A. Wall (Eds.), Theory and research in learning disabilities.New York: Plenum Press.
96.
Kephart, N.C. (1960). The slow learner in the classroom.Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
97.
Kifer, E. (1975). Relationships between academic achievement and personality characteristics: A quasi-longitudinal study. American Educational Research Journal, 12, 191–210.
98.
Kinsbourne, M. (1973). Minimal brain dysfunction as a neurodevelopmental lag. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 205, 268–273.
99.
Kinsbourne, M. (Ed.), (1983). Brain basis of learning disabilities. Topics in Learning and Learning Disabilities.Rockville, MD: Aspen.
100.
Kinsbourne, M. & Caplan, P.J. (1979). Children's learning and attention problems.Boston: Little, Brown & Co.
101.
Kirk, S.A. & Kirk, W.R. (1971). Psycholinguistic learning disabilities: Diagnosis and remediation.Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
102.
Knights, R.M. & Bakker, D.J. (Eds.). (1976). The neuropsychology of learning disorders: Theoretical approaches.Baltimore: University Park Press.
103.
Kounin, J.S. (1970). Discipline and group management in classroom.New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
104.
Krantz, P. & Risley, T. (1977). Behavioral ecology in the classroom. In K. O'Leary & S. O'Leary (Eds.), Classroom management: The successful use of behavior modification (2nd ed.).New York: Pergamon Press.
105.
Kronnick, D. (1981). Social development of learning disabled persons.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Lightfoot, J.L. (1979). Families and schools. In H. Walberg (Ed.), Educational environments and effects.Berkeley, CA: McCuthan.
108.
Maccoby, E.E. & Jacklin, C.N. (1974). The psychology of sex differences.Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
109.
Majoribanks, K. (1972). Environment, social class, and mental abilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 103–109.
110.
Majoribanks, K. (Ed.). (1974). Environments for learning.London: National Foundation for Educational Research.
111.
Mayron, L.W. (1978). Ecological factors in learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 11, 40–50.
112.
Mayron, L.W. (1979). Allergy, learning, and behavior problems. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 12, 41–49.
113.
McCall, R., Appelbaum, M. & Hogarty, P. (1973). Developmental changes in mental performance. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 38, No. 3, 1–84.
114.
McClelland, D.C., Atkinson, J.W., Clark, R. A. & Lowell, E.L. (1953). The achievement motive.New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
115.
McLeod, J. (1967). Some psycholinguistic correlates of reading disability in young children Reading Research Quarterly, 2, 5–32.
116.
Messick, S. (Ed.), (1976). Individuality in learning: Implications of cognitive styles and creativity for human development.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
117.
Millman, J., Bieger, G.R., Klag, P.A. & Pine, C.K. (1983). Relation between perservance and rate of learning: A test of Carroll's model of school learning. American Educational Research Journal, 20, 425–434.
Myklebust, H.R., Bannochie, M.N. & Killen, J.R. (1971). Learning disabilities and cognitive processes. In H. Myklebust (Ed.), Progress in learning disabilities (Vol. II).New York: Grune & Stratton.
120.
Owen, F.W., Adams, P.A., Forrest, T., Stolz, L.M. & Fisher, S. (1971). Learning disorders in children: Sibling studies. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 36, 4 (Serial No. 144).
121.
Reynolds, C.R. (1985). Critical measurement issues in learning disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 18, 451–476.
Ringness, T. (1975). The affective domain in education.Boston: Little, Brown & Co.
124.
Romberg, T.A. (1980). Salient features of the BTES framework of teacher behaviors. In C. Denham & A. Lieberman (Eds.), Time to learn.Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Education.
125.
Rosenshine, B. (1971). Teaching behaviors and student achievement.London: National Foundation for Educational Research.
126.
Rosenshine, B.V. (1976). Classroom instruction. In N. Gage (Ed.), The psychology of teaching methods: The 75th Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
127.
Rosenshine, B.V. (1979). The third cycle of research on teacher effects: Content covered, academic engaged time, and direct instruction. In P. Peterson & H. Walberg (Eds.), Research on teaching: Concepts, findings, and implications.Berkeley, CA: McCuthan.
128.
Rosenshine, B.V. (1980). How time is spent in elementary classrooms. In C. Denham & A. Lieberman (Eds.), Time to learn.Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Education.
129.
Rosenshine, B. & Furst, N. (1973). The use of direct observation to study teaching. In R. Travers (Ed.), Second handbook of research on teaching.Chicago: Rand McNally.
130.
Rosenthal, R. & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom.New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
131.
Ross, A.O. (1976). Psychological aspects of learning disabilities and reading disorders.New York: McGraw-Hill.
132.
Rubin, L. (Ed.). (1977). Curriculum handbook: The disciplines, current movements, and instructional methodology.Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
133.
Ryan, D.G. (1960). Characteristics of teachers.Washington, DC: American Council on Education.
134.
Sarason, S.B., Lighthall, F.F., Davidson, K.S., Waite, R.R., & Ruebush, B.K. (1960). Anxiety in elementary school children.New York: Wiley.
135.
Schmuck, R.A. & Schmuck, P.A. (1971). Group processes in the classroom.Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown.
136.
Schulte, A. & Borich, G.D. (1984). Considerations in the use of difference scores to identify learning-disabled children. Journal of School Psychology, 22, 381–390.
137.
Schweibel, A. & Cherlin, D. (1972). Physical and social distancing in teacher-pupil relationships. Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 543–550.
138.
Senf, G.M. (1972). An information-integration theory and its application to normal reading acquisition and reading disability. In N. Bryant & C. Kass (Eds.), Leadership Training Institute in Learning Disabilities: Final Report, Vol. 2.Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona.
139.
Shavelson, R.J. (1976). Teachers' decision-making. In N. Gage (Ed.), The psychology of teaching methods: The 75th Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Part I.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
140.
Sigel, I. & Coop, R. (1974). Cognitive style and classroom practice. In R. Coop & K. White (Eds.), Psychological concepts in the classroom.New York: Harper & Row.
141.
Silver, L. (1971). Familial patterns in children with neurologically-based learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 4, 349–358.
142.
Snow, R.E. (1973). Theory construction for research on teaching. In R. Travers (Ed.), Second handbook of research on teaching.Chicago: Rand-McNally.
143.
Speilberger, C.D (Ed.), (1966). Anxiety and behavior, New York: Academic Press.
144.
Steg, J.P. & Rapoport, J.L. (1975). Minor physical anomalies in normal, neurotic, learning disabled, and severely disturbed children. Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia, 5, 299–307.
145.
Stephens, J.M. (1967). The process of schooling: A psychological examination.New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
146.
Stevenson, H., Parker, T., Wilkenson, A., Bonneveaux, B. & Gonzalez, M. (1978). Schooling, environment, and cognitive development: A cross-cultural study. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 43 (Serial # 175).
147.
Tanner, D. & Tanner, L.N. (1980). Curriculum development: Theory into practice (2nd ed.). New York: Macmillan.
148.
Tarver, S.G. & Hallahan, D.P. (1974). Attention deficits in children with learning disabilities: A review. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 7, 560–569.
149.
Thomas, A. & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development.New York: Bruner/Mazel.
150.
Thurlow, M., Graden, J., Ysseldyke, J.E. & Algozzine, R. (1984). Student reading during reading class: The lost activity in reading instruction. Journal of Educational Research, 77, 267–272.
151.
Torgesen, J.K. (1977). The role of nonspecific factors in the task performance of learning-disabled children: A theoretical assessment. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 10, 27–34.
152.
Torgesen, J.K. (1978). Performance of reading disabled children on serial memory tasks: A review. Reading Research Quarterly, 19, 57–87.
153.
Torgesen, J.K. (1982). The study of short-term memory in learning disabled children: Goals, methods, and conclusions. In K. Gadow & I. Bialer (Eds.), Advances in learning and behavioral disabilities (Vol. I).Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
154.
Vellutino, F.R. (1979). Dyslexia: Theory and research.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
155.
Vogel, S.A. (1975). Syntactic abilities in normal and dyslexic children.Baltimore: University Park Press.
156.
Walberg, H.J. (1969). Predicting class learning: A multivariate approach to the class as a social system. American Educational Research Journal, 4, 529–542.
157.
Walberg, H.J. & Anderson, G.J. (1968). Classroom climate and individual learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 59, 414–419.
158.
Walberg, J.J. (1976). Psychology of the learning environment: Behavioral, structural, or perceptual? In L. Shulman (Ed.), Review of research in education (Vol. 4). Itasca, IL: F.E. Peacock.
159.
Walker, E.L. (1980). Psychological complexity and preference: A hedge-hog theory of behavior.Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
160.
Wang, M.C. & Lindvall, C.M. (1984). Individual differences and school learning environments. In E. Gordon (Ed.), Review of Research in Education, 11, 161—225.
161.
Weiner, B. (1977). An attributional approach for educational psychology. In L. Shulman (Ed.), Review of research in education (Vol. 4).Itasca, IL: F.E. Peacock.
162.
Weiss, B. (1982). Food additives and environmental chemicals as sources of childhood behavior disorders. Journal of American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 21, 144–152.
163.
Wender, P.H. (1976). Hypothesis for possible biochemical basis of minimal brain dysfunction. In R. Knights & D. Bakker (Eds.), The neuropsychology of learning disorders: Theoretical approaches.Baltimore: University Park Press.
164.
Wepman, J.M. (1975). Auditory perception and imperception. In W. Cruickshank & D. Hallahan (Eds.), Perceptual and learning disabilities in children, Vol. 2: Research and theory.Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
165.
Werner, E.E. & Smith, R. (1977). Kauai's children come of age.Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
166.
Wiederholt, J.L. (1974). Historical perspectives on the education of the learning disabled. In L. Mann & D. Sabatino, (Eds.), The second review of special education.Philadelphia: JSE Press, 103—152.
167.
Wiley, D.E. (1976). Another hour, another day: Quantity of schooling, a potent path for policy. In W. Sewell, R. Hauser & D. Featherman (Eds.), Schooling and achievement in American society.New York: Academic Press.
168.
Withall, J. & Lewis, W.W. (1963). Social interaction in the classroom. In N. Gage (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching.Chicago: Rand-McNally.
169.
Witkin, H., Moore, C., Goodenough, D. & Cox, P. (1977). Field-dependent and field-independent cognitive styles and their educational implications. Review of Educational Research, 47, 1–64.
170.
Wong, B. (1979). The role of theory in learning disabilities research: Part I. An analysis of problems. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 12, 585–595.
