Access and Retention of Marginalized Populations Within Undergraduate Music Education Degree Programs

Abstract

The purpose of this collective instrumental case study was to examine the experiences of six undergraduate students from traditionally marginalized populations with regard to their preparation for, admission to, and retention within a music education degree program. Analyzed and reported through the lens of critical theory, data sources included semistructured interviews with the participants and structured interviews with their high school music teacher and a university-based mentor. Participants described a lack of resources with regard to their preparation for auditions as well as a lack of information regarding the application and audition process. Such inhibiting factors were mediated by personal initiative, hard work, and dedication. The presence of role models and mentors was considered an important aid to their retention within music education degree programs. Participants also provided suggestions for improving access, admission, and retention of students from traditionally marginalized populations.

Keywords

higher education music education marginalization

Issues of access and retention of marginalized populations within music education degree programs are especially relevant to the provision of social justice and cultural diversity within higher education (Clements, 2009; College Music Society, 1989; Koza, 2008) and therefore ultimately in preK through 12th-grade schools (Whelchel, 2000), as well. The highly specialized admission and audition process required for most programs of music teacher education raises questions regarding equity of resources and music preparation, while the complicated structure and lack of diversity in most music education degree programs requires increased attention to the support and retention of those students from historically marginalized populations.

According to S. Brown (2006), “marginalization consists in not taking others into account on any number of valued outcomes, resulting in powerlessness, ignorance, poverty, illness, insecurity, and other manifestations of devaluation” (p. 1). The term marginalization suggests a complex set of interrelated factors that lead to a disenfranchisement from society, institutions, or cultural narratives. Because the historical marginalization of certain populations results in ignorance of that population’s specific needs and experiences (S. Brown, 2006), there is a need for research in music education that tells the story of those who may have been left out of our profession’s discourse.

Research suggests that there may be certain historically marginalized groups that face particular barriers to access to and retention within higher education. Within music education, recent research on a national student population (Elpus & Abril, 2011) has shown disparities in levels of music participation for precollegiate students according to several important background variables. Specifically, Elpus and Abril (2011) found that the following groups were underrepresented in participation in school music ensembles: Hispanic students, students in the lowest quartile of socioeconomic status, native Spanish speakers, and students whose parents had earned a high school diploma or less. As such, it seems likely that members of marginalized groups who share these characteristics may encounter barriers of access to university music education degree programs.

Research in general education suggests that members of other groups may face barriers to access and subsequent retention within programs of higher education. For example, degree attainment can be challenging for students who are the first in their families to pursue higher education. Ishitani (2003) reported that the risk for attrition during the 1st year of college among first-generation students was 71% higher than that of their peers whose parents had both earned a degree. A later study (Ishitani, 2006) also showed that first-generation students who stayed in school were less likely to complete their degrees in a timely manner. Although some first-generation students have low-income backgrounds, socioeconomic levels vary (Lohfink & Paulsen, 2005). Financial resources are only a part of the challenges faced by first-generation college students. These students may lack the background, study habits, and knowledge of campus culture that they need to succeed. Without the parental guidance many of their peers may have, they may fail without additional assistance from educational professionals (Davis, 2010).

Regardless of particular background variables, paying for rising tuition costs can be particularly challenging for students (Pérez-Peña, 2012). Data from the U.S. Census Bureau (2012) has documented income disparities among ethnic groups, with the lower median income levels reported among Blacks ($32,229) and Hispanics ($38,624) compared to higher levels observed among Whites ($52,214) and Asians ($65,129). Furthermore, Black and Hispanic citizens ranked among the largest group of people in poverty. Although income is certainly only one of many factors that may lead to degree completion, data from the National Center on Education Statistics (2012) revealed that “between 1980 and 2011, the gap of attainment of a bachelor’s degree or higher between Blacks and Whites increased from 13 to 19 percentage points, and the gap between Whites and Hispanics increased from 17 to 26 percentage points” (p. 114). Income disparity may explain at least a part of these discrepancies.

Access and retention also may be challenging for individuals who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, or questioning (LGBTQ). According to a survey examining school conditions for LGBTQ youth, students who experienced frequent harassment had lower grade point averages (GPAs) and were more than twice as likely not to pursue postsecondary education than those who were less often harassed (Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network, 2011). Research also has shown that LGBTQ students who attend college may encounter homophobic commentary or even physical violence (Carter, 2013). Likewise, reports have indicated that some students lack family acceptance and face losing financial support unless they adhere to heteronormative ideals, making college life more stressful than some students can manage (Sanlo, Rankin, & Schoenberg, 2006).

There is a need for research that deals with issues of access and retention with regard to the specific structure of the undergraduate music teacher education program. Although more research is needed to examine the makeup of the student population of undergraduate music education programs, researchers have found a lack of diversity among both in-service teachers (Hancock, 2008) and collegiate music teacher educators (Hewitt & Thompson, 2006). It is possible that a lack of diversity among both music teachers and music teacher educators may have a reciprocal effect on the level of diversity of students in undergraduate music education programs, which in turn may be related to the provision of social justice within preK through 12th-grade music programs.

The purpose of this study was to examine the experiences of undergraduate students from traditionally marginalized populations with regard to their preparation for, admission to, and retention within a music education degree program. The following research questions guided the inquiry: (1) What kinds of experiences do the participants report with regard to the process of preparing for and deciding to pursue a music education degree? (2) What kinds of experiences do the participants report with regard to the process of applying/auditioning for a music education degree? (3) What kinds of experiences do the participants describe with regard to their retention as members of a music education degree program? and (4) What recommendations do the participants have for improving the process of preparation for, admission to, and retention of music education students from historically marginalized populations?

Related Literature

Access

In order to pursue a career in teaching, students must have access to the formal structures that provide additional education and credentials. Research has shown that individuals from marginalized populations often have less access to university programs than do those students who are not members of marginalized groups. This reduced access can be impacted directly by specific groups of individuals, including peers (Schwarz & Hill, 2010; Sokatch, 2006), secondary school staff personnel (Farmer-Hinton, 2008; Whelchel, 2000), school music teachers (Bergee, 1992; Bergee, Coffman, Demorest, Humphreys, & Thorton, 2001; Bergee & Demorest, 2003; Bright, 2005; Cox, 1994; Gillespie & Hamann, 1999; Hamann & Cutietta, 1996; Hamann & Walker, 1993; Madsen & Kelly, 2002; Rickels et al., 2010), and parents (Frenette, 2007; James & Taylor, 2008).

Peers and high school mentors can impact students’ decision to attend college. With regard to the influence of their peers, Sokatch (2006) found that minority students who had friends that planned on attending college and whose friends also wanted them to attend college were more likely to enroll in a 4-year college during the fall term following graduation from high school. Farmer-Hinton (2008) examined faculty interviews, student surveys, and focus group data to investigate the features of a “college preparatory school context” and its impact on African American and Hispanic “seniors’ postsecondary plans” (p. 138). Student awareness of, understanding of, and appreciation for a college degree were affected positively by frequent conversations with staff members who expressed high expectations for these students and their life accomplishments.

The presence of music teacher role models may be especially important to students’ decision to major in music education. Studies on preservice and in-service music teachers have found that students who decide to major in music education consistently cite their school music teacher as having had the most influence on their decision to do so (Bergee, 1992; Bergee et al., 2001; Bergee & Demorest, 2003; Bright, 2005; Cox, 1994; Gillespie & Hamann, 1999; Hamann & Cutietta, 1996; Madsen & Kelly, 2002; Rickels et al., 2010). Hamann and Walker (1993) found that African American high school students who identified a music teacher as serving as a role model more frequently indicated interest in majoring in music, taking music courses in college, and performing in music groups at the college level than those who did not have a music teacher that they identified as being an important role model. Participants also tended to identify those teachers (music and nonmusic teachers) as role models who shared the same race and sex as themselves.

In addition to influential role models, high school students interested in a career in music education also may be affected by external variables, such as issues of race (Farmer-Hinton, 2008; Henry & Glenn, 2011; James & Taylor, 2008; Schwarz & Hill, 2010), credit, tuition increases, and family income (Briscoe & Oliver, 2006; Farmer-Hinton, 2008; Frenette, 2007). It is also important for marginalized students to enroll in quality precollege offerings on their high school campuses. Unfortunately, these are not always available to all students. Whelchel (2000) found that “minority children and students are not afforded the opportunity to participate in [precollege] arts education to the extent that nonminorities do” (p. 32). This is evidenced in their limited “access to . . . basic studies in . . . dance, music, theatre, and the visual arts” (Whelchel, 2000, p. 32). Until this issue is addressed in the public schools, it is less likely that minority students will become future college arts majors, which also will affect negatively the likelihood of their becoming future arts educators.

Each of these variables can contribute to the amount of disparity that exists between certain groups of students and their access to quality university programs. This may impact directly students’ ability to achieve a university education, to accomplish life goals, and ultimately to succeed in society.

Retention

Once enrolled in higher education, students from historically marginalized populations often face threats to their retention within degree programs, such as exaggerated stress, social stigma, and teacher misperceptions (Foster, 2008). Research on undergraduate student retention has demonstrated that a variety of psychosocial factors related to academic preparation, ongoing academic support, and social integration may combine to impact undergraduate student success and graduation in a timely manner. While it is these variables, rather than ethnicity per se, that impact student success (Denis, Calvillo, & Gonzalez, 2008), complications due to marginalized status experienced among many ethnic minority group members have led Wohlgemuth et al. (2007) to acknowledge that academic services often fail to meet these students’ needs in a university setting. Academic support, although vital, may not be enough to help students feel competent in a new learning community. For these students, social connections made via professorial and peer mentoring can be valuable motivators (Grant-Vallone, Reid, Umali, & Pohlert, 2004; Herrera, Morales, Holmes, & Terry, 2011; Hirt, Amelink, McFeeters, & Strayhorn, 2008; Morales, 2010; Palmer & Young, 2009; Reyes & Elias, 2011; Torres & Hernandez, 2009).

Although social connections might be important among music education students, research on retention and attrition has uncovered a variety of academic factors related to retention, including high school GPA (George, 1969), college GPA (A. Brown & Alley, 1983; Shellahamer, 1984), college entrance exams (Main, 1969), music achievement tests (George, 1969), music theory grades (Main, 1969), and jury grades (A. Brown & Alley, 1983). Gavin (2010) found that students who changed majors frequently were unprepared for the rigors of high performance expectations in applied studies. This finding was especially relevant for students from small high school music programs in which performance standards may not have been particularly stringent.

Method

In this study, we examined the issues of access and retention of marginalized populations in undergraduate music education programs through an instrumental case study (Creswell, 1998) involving six participants. A collective instrumental case study design involves an exploration of more than one case for the purpose of providing understanding about a larger issue (Stake, 2000). Participants were undergraduate students currently enrolled in music education degree programs at three large public universities located in the Midwest and the Southwest who gave informed consent to participate. Intensity sampling (Patton, 2001) was used to select two participants from each university from traditionally marginalized populations (e.g., students of color, self-identified LGBTQ students, first-generation college students) who were known by the authors (who served as the participants’ music education professors at each university) to have background stories and experiences that demonstrated especially rich and compelling examples of the phenomenon. See Table 1 for a description of these participants, who are referred to throughout the paper using pseudonyms.

Table 1.

Participants.

Name	Self-identified marginalized populations	Instrument	Gender	Compelling reasons for inclusion in intensity sample
Brandon	Latino First generation	Saxophone	M	Arrested for marijuana possession while in college, dropped out, then returned
Chris	Black First generation Gay	Voice	M	Father in prison most of his life; background in gospel music; transfer student
Daisy	Latina First generation	Horn	F	7th-year nontraditional student; transfer student from community college and other unit on campus
Irene	Half Latina First generation Lesbian	Voice	F	Mother raising young child with partner; has faced financial challenges
Joshua	Black Gay	Tuba	M	Father struggled with substance abuse and passed away while Joshua was in college; background in gospel music
Larissa	Black First generation	Voice	F	Never took private voice lessons before college; transfer student from other unit on campus; single mother of a small child

Note. M = male; F = female.

The primary source of data collection was a 1- to 2-hour semistructured interview with each participant, done either in the researcher’s university office or on the campuses of local schools where participants were completing student teaching experiences. Questions focused on the participants’ individual experiences related to the research questions. Although the six university participants composed the case of interest, structured interviews also were conducted with each student’s favored high school music teacher (note that one high school music teacher was unable to participate) and a university-based mentor each student identified as being most influential with regard to his or her retention within the degree program (see the Appendix, available online at http://jrme.sagepub.com/supplemental, for all three interview protocols). The purpose and focus of these interviews was to provide more information about the participant as well as to provide triangulation of data regarding the participant’s preparation for a music education degree program (high school director) and his or her admission to and retention within the same program (university-based mentor). Structured interviews with the high school music teachers and university-based mentors occurred either via e-mail or in the context of a phone conversation. It is important to note that the structure of e-mail or written interviews does not allow for the same level of interaction between interviewer and interviewee as does an in-person interview. However, this format was helpful in allowing us to collect data with high school and university participants whom we were unable to reach in person due to scheduling constraints or geographic distance. In such cases, we followed up with additional questions when clarification was needed.

The coding process used for cross-case data analysis best resembles the steps of Creswell’s (1998) Data Analysis Spiral, which uses the following sequential processes: data collection; data managing; reading and memoing; describing, classifying, and interpreting; and representing and visualizing. Identification of codes and then themes was guided primarily by the research questions, first for each case and then across all six cases.

To address trustworthiness (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Merriam, 1998), member checks were conducted with participants to ensure that transcripts accurately reflected their intended meanings, and an external audit (Maxwell, 1997) of initial codes and findings was conducted with an experienced qualitative researcher. Throughout the coding process, we made note of disconfirming evidence in order to explore whether alternative interpretations of the data were warranted. The comments of the external auditor and the separate interpretations of the three members of the research team were helpful in reconciling any discrepancies. Finally, data triangulation for Research Questions 1 and 2 (regarding access and preparation) was accomplished through comparison of data from the participant and high school music teacher interviews and for Research Question 3 (retention) through comparison of data from the participant and university-based mentor interviews.

Interpretive Lens

Critical theory (Rexhepi & Torres, 2011) served as an interpretive lens (Creswell, 2007) for this study in that it guided the collection and analysis of data as well as the interpretation of results. Educational researchers who embrace a critical perspective seek to “change existing educational and social inequalities and to create curricula and teaching that are more socially just” (Apple, 2010, p. 152). Creswell (2007) discussed the specific use of critical theory in research as being “methodological, in that it affects the ways in which people read and write, and substantive, in the theories and topics of the investigator” (p. 27) as they pertain to issues concerned with empowering human beings to transcend the constraints placed on them by race, class, and gender (Fay, 1987). In this study, we sought to do both. Our Discussion section addresses Bohman’s (2012) suggestion that critical theorists “explain what is wrong with current social reality, identify the actors to change it, and provide both clear norms for criticism and achievable practical goals for social transformation” (para. 3). We also focused topically on issues in our study that pertain to the empowerment of individuals from marginalized populations.

Findings

Figure 1 presents the codes and themes that resulted from cross-case analysis (see the Appendix, available online at http://jrme.sagepub.com/supplemental). Each of these themes is listed next, organized according to research question.

Research Question 1: What kinds of experiences do the participants report with regard to the process of preparing for and deciding to pursue a music education degree?

With regard to the first research question, four themes with accompanying codes emerged from analysis: (a) personal qualities and values, (b) prior experiences, (c) accessibility of resources, and (d) external support. The first theme, personal qualities and values, refers to the experiences that participants described that were related to their own character, drive, and goal setting in the face of obstacles. While all participants spoke about a love for music that might be expected from typical music education students, what seemed to set these students apart from others was their degree of perseverance and motivation. Recounting his first days in 6th grade with a new saxophone, Brandon shared the following:

In 6th grade, I mean I always wanted lessons. The first day, I was like, “Can I have lessons?” They’re like, “No, sorry.” And I remember my dad kind of telling me, “Well, this thing costs $2,000.00. You’d better be pretty good at it pretty quick.” And I took that to heart. (interview, February 22, 2012)

In spite of limited resources that prevented a majority of participants from receiving consistent private instruction before college, all managed to excel in their high school programs through self-study, and two earned positions in highly competitive all-state ensembles. The participants highlighted the role of individual preparation and initiative in overcoming these challenges.

Positive recognition in high school played a role related to the second theme, prior experiences, which refers to those experiences that shaped our participants’ music lives in high school. Black participants reported positive results from music learned through their churches, yet they also noted a difference in vocal technique between gospel singing and art music that had to be negotiated to ensure success in varying venues. Larissa related the following:

Then I went to a church that just was like a really bad technique, and by then I was in choir at school and I was battling because my teacher was like, you shouldn’t sing in a church choir because you’re going to ruin your voice. And my church director was all like, well, you’re doing this for your religion so she should be happy and I’m like, oh, my goodness; I don’t know what to do. (interview, March 9, 2012)

This cultural difference was not easily negotiated for Larissa, who later sang gospel music for a portion of her university entrance audition. Indeed, many of the participants’ prior music experiences seemed to differ between their home and school lives.

The third theme, accessibility of resources, acknowledges limited funding available for most participants. Although some participants spoke of high school programs that provided private instruction free of charge, these benefits were sporadic and did not continue from year to year. Private lessons provided one year often were ceased the next, leaving these students’ music accomplishments behind those of their peers whose parents had more extensive financial resources. Chris’s story highlighted the plight of instrumentalists. Although Chris pursued voice in high school and chose this medium for his career, he was also a talented bassoonist. However, he shared that limited funds curtailed his instrumental efforts:

To be really successful at bassoon, I needed private instruction and the money to be able to afford private instruction, reeds, and books. And that just wasn’t my world. And there’s this other bassoon player named [name]. He came from a wealthy family. He was white. And he had money to take hour-long private lessons and had a lot of resources. I didn’t have anything. . . . He had all these resources that I guess helped him become a better bassoon player than I was, which kind of made me feel . . . disenfranchised. (interview, February 27, 2012)

To overcome the lack of available resources, participants again turned to individual initiative in an attempt to “work harder.” Many of them also recounted the importance of timely provisions of resources, such as a private benefactor who provided lessons for Larissa and a high school band director who taught Joshua tuba in exchange for help with yard work and various other chores.

The fourth theme to emerge, external support, refers to the variety of individuals who supported participants’ efforts emotionally and sometimes financially. These included parents, grandparents, high school directors, and booster club members. For instance, Daisy shared that when her father passed away during her 9th-grade year, high school directors and band booster parents served as surrogate parental figures during a difficult time. Joshua recounted the impact that his supportive and encouraging high school band director had on his decision to major in music education:

So I was like, all right. Well, I’m going to go to college. I didn’t know for what. My band director—well, one of them said, “You would make a really great band director.” And I was like, I had never thought about that. So I was like, okay. Well, I really like the tuba. That’s for sure. And that could be fun to study. And so then I started taking lessons with him. (interview, March 9, 2012)

The support of these individuals was crucial to the participants’ ability to overcome their lack of resources.

Research Question 2: What kind of experiences do the participants report with regard to the process of applying for/auditioning for a music education degree?

Two themes emerged for our second research question: (a) inhibiting factors and (b) enabling factors. Participants reported a range of inhibiting factors that varied individually. For example, with regard to applying for the music education degree, one of the most inhibiting factors reported by participants simply was coping with the logistics of the application process. While participants reported that their parents encouraged the pursuit of a college education, they frequently were unprepared to help their children with the logistics of completing paperwork for college admission and financial aid. For example, Brandon recalled, “My parents really don’t know anything about all this loan stuff, because they only had one year of community college, and then they met. I was just kind of figuring everything out. And it was very frustrating” (interview, February 22, 2012). Two participants drove to the university sites and completed the audition process alone, without any direct parental support. Other inhibiting factors included Irene’s parents’ pressure to pursue a pop artist songwriting career instead of music education and significant discouragement that Daisy received from a college counselor. Brandon held a perception that his high school director was dismissive, even though this director recalled that Brandon “was a curious learner and never afraid to ask questions. . . . Making it a profession was his natural next step” (interview, May 9, 2012).

During the audition process, several of the participants noted the lack of diversity among faculty and students. Larissa, for example, recalled, “Yeah. I didn’t see any people of color. I saw [the dean of multicultural affairs] and I knew some people that were already in the program but it was like two” (interview, March 9, 2012). Daisy also felt that the lack of diversity at the audition was inhibiting:

I just kind of stayed in a practice room and kept to myself. I didn’t really get a chance to see anyone else. I did see a lot of, um, how do you say this, Caucasian, is that how you say white? There were a lot of white people auditioning, so I felt really intimidated. . . . I always felt like they had the upper hand for some reason. They had that little something more. (interview, March 9, 2012)

Participants who identified as LGBTQ did not express a sense of discomfort based on sexual orientation during the audition process. Further research would help to clarify whether this is due to a reluctance of our participants to discuss such issues, a lack of focused questioning of this subject by the researchers, or perhaps the beginnings of positive change in the culture of our schools of music for LGBTQ students.

Enabling factors identified by the participants included people who were able and willing to educate students about university environments and the audition process, such as Joshua’s high school director:

[My band director said,] “This is what you need to be doing. You need to be playing scales. You need to know these pieces. You need to contact these professors. You don’t just walk in there and [say,] ‘I’m here.’ You need to take a lesson with Professor [name].” He walked me through everything, every single thing . . . even just parking and knowing to have $5 for parking, that was all very foreign to me. (interview, March 9, 2012)

Likewise, Brandon reported that older students who had gone to college helped him facilitate the paperwork process and provided continual encouragement and friendly reminders to persevere: “I have a fraternity brother . . . and he just really tried to keep me focused . . . ’cause he’s been dealing with loans and stuff” (interview, February 22, 2012).

One of the greatest enabling factors identified by participants was the welcoming nature of studio professors. Joshua reported the following exchange with his tuba professor:

[The professor said,] “You know what, if I had some time with you, you could be really great.” Because I’m a musical person. I can sing. And I can—I have a lot of really great musical ideas and awareness. But I could not express that all the way on the tuba. He’s like, “You can change that.” (interview, March 9, 2012)

For these participants, individual attention and guidance from supportive others provided crucial information that might be considered “insider information” among those with education and experience. When knowledgeable people were willing to share this information during participants’ high school years, the students were more adept at managing unfamiliar environments.

Research Question 3: What kinds of experiences do the participants describe with regard to their retention as members of a music education degree program?

Four themes emerged from data analysis relevant to the third research question: (a) socialization, (b) importance of mentors, (c) personal qualities, and (d) academic and nonacademic threats. The first theme, socialization, addresses the importance of having friendships with individuals who were also members of the same marginalized group(s) with which our participants identified. Most participants indicated that they had few friends who were like them, and of the “like friends” they had, the opportunities to socialize and interact with these individuals were key in their maintaining a positive attitude and successfully navigating their way through the undergraduate programs at their universities. Daisy described her friendship with an individual who identified with the same marginalized group in the following manner: “We’re constantly together and I feel a bit closer to her for some reason because we’re from the same background. We’re both minorities, so we’re like, ‘We’re doing this. Let’s keep doing this’” (interview, March 9, 2012).

Likewise, Larissa shared the following:

I have maybe two or three friends that we come from the same community and we support each other, like the girl I was telling you about earlier, we took all our classes together and we stayed together and hang out. She would watch [my daughter] when I needed help with her. So we were really supportive of each other. There’s nobody in music ed. (interview, March 9, 2012)

The second theme, importance of mentors, refers to the individuals from whom our participants received academic instruction and/or advising. Joshua described an influential professor as “awesome,” whereas Daisy described her influential professors as those who were “brilliant, . . . supportive, . . . encouraging, . . . and accessible.” They identified as mentors those who were influential in their having had positive experiences during their undergraduate studies. For example, Chris’s collegiate choral music education professor went out of his way to spend time with him and develop a positive relationship. The professor explained,

I had been invited to conduct a 200-voice middle school cambiata choir in [location]. He rode with me, and we talked a lot about his education at [location] and life in general. The choir was a bit crazy and unprepared, but the experience with Chris was very positive. (interview, June 7, 2012)

Participants did express concerns, however, about the personal characteristics possessed by most of their mentors and how they differed from their own. As wonderful as these mentors were, participants expressed a desire to have more professional mentors with whom they shared similar backgrounds and characteristics (e.g., race, ethnic group, LGBTQ).

The theme of personal qualities addresses those qualities that have enabled participants to make positive progress toward degree completion. Some of the self-identified traits mentioned by participants included hard work, persistence, and dedication. These were the same traits that enabled these students to earn their high school diplomas while facing personal challenges, audition for acceptance into the universities within which they currently were enrolled, and effectively navigate their way through the academic programs toward completion of an undergraduate degree. Daisy described the importance and necessity of these personal qualities in the following manner:

Nothing ever came easy to me so I really had to work really hard. . . . I think that’s really important from a student standpoint because many of the people I talk to here say they were always first chair and what not and that it always came easy to them. That was not the case for me. I was always struggling and trying to be first chair. I feel like that’s kind of an upper hand for me because I know what it takes to work hard and to get to reach the goal that I wanted to. (interview, March 9, 2012)

Daisy’s university applied professor also commented on her personal qualities and the impact they had on her level of success as a university student. He described her as a student who “work(s) hard, . . . is very respected and well liked by all, . . . [and] is very connected to her peers” (interview, May 24, 2012). These traits enabled Daisy to establish a positive rapport with graduate assistants, her music education colleagues, and her university professors.

The fourth and final theme relevant to our third research question, academic and nonacademic threats, addresses the other variables that have threatened the participants’ undergraduate experiences and retention within the music programs in which they are currently enrolled. Some of these threats included accessibility of resources, failed auditions, poor performance on diagnostic exams, family demands and expectations, and fear of discrimination. Participants expressed a concern about having access to resources once admitted into and enrolled in their university programs. Although aware that financial assistance existed, they were unable to facilitate the application process required to acquire the funds. Larissa was one of the few participants who reported being able to secure much-needed resources from the university but still discussed the challenges involved in doing so:

I just don’t know where to look. And I was like, where can I find child care? It’s kind of like—you’ve got to piece it all together yourself. . . . I know I needed a tutor. I knew I needed to take piano lessons and I know I didn’t have the money to do it. So I was like, where do I go to ask? (interview, March 9, 2012)

Some of the LGBTQ students expressed fear of discrimination due to their identity. For example, Irene believed she had to be more vigilant about behaviors than her heterosexual peers in classroom settings:

I know of a situation where the administrator went through and somehow found a way to fire every single [LGBTQ] teacher. It’s like walking on needles all the time. I have students that come and hug me very frequently and I’m just like, a half hug/side hit. (March 7, 2012)

Of the three participants who identified as gay, Joshua seemed the most guarded. He barely addressed his LGBTQ status, sharing only, “As far as being gay, I’m not openly gay really to 99% of people. None of my professors would know that” (interview March 9, 2012).

Research Question 4: What recommendations do the participants have for improving the process of preparation, admission, and retention of music education students from marginalized populations?

Four themes emerged from analysis of data related to our fourth research question: (a) importance of self-reliance, (b) better communication, (c) mentorship, and (d) better support and resources. The first theme, self-reliance, represents the participants’ belief that undergraduates from marginalized populations must rely primarily on their own initiative, dedication, and self-motivation in order to succeed within the current structure of the undergraduate music education degree program. For example, Larissa’s self-motivation originated from a desire to avoid stereotyped assumptions:

So I have to be better. I have to work harder, I have to think smarter, I have to work faster and I just have to do it. And there is no other way, because I’m not going back to Detroit, not living with my mom, not living with another guy—not going to be a stereotype. I’m going to have my child and finish school and be successful too. (interview, March 9, 2012)

The second theme, better communication, refers to the participants’ desire for better information regarding the application and audition process as well as alternative career options in music education. For example, Daisy’s poor experience with a counselor from the school of music at her institution led her to recommend better communication and provision of information without prejudgment:

She really tried to push for me not to audition again and I just felt like, “Why would you say that to me?” and it made me want to do it even more. She gave me the information, [but] she did it kind of not wholeheartedly. So I was like, okay, I’m going to talk to somebody else because I don’t feel like this is what [this university] is about. (interview, March 9, 2012)

Early provision of information regarding the application process and procedures also would be welcome, as evidenced by Larissa’s experience. For example, Larissa did not know how to apply or audition for the school of music and believed that auditions were held after students came to campus rather than beforehand. Due to this lack of information, she came to campus with an unspecified major and spent an entire year working to transfer into the school of music: “Well, I wish I would’ve known that you had to apply for the music school. That would’ve been nice” (interview, March 9, 2012).

The third theme, mentorship, represents the need for the development of supportive and mentoring relationships between undergraduates from marginalized populations and faculty and staff in the school of music. Participants identified as mentors faculty and staff who had both similar and different backgrounds as themselves. However, for Joshua, the availability of older African American faculty role models in particular became an important benefit of his participation with an organization of black students, faculty, and staff from within the school of music. In particular, he discussed the inspiration he found from interaction with a faculty member from a different studio within the school of music:

He’s so cool. And when I think about his—how similar his background is to mine just in terms of the lack of resources but then to think about how magnified his situation was because he had a lot more incendiary racial things going on when he was my age . . . It was people like them, hearing their stories . . . that kept me like, I can do this. I can make it through whatever I think is so bad right now. Yeah. (interview, March 9, 2012)

The development of such mentoring relationships may be an important step in bettering the retention of students from marginalized populations. Chris, a self-identified black gay man, specifically lamented the lack of such a mentoring relationship with a supportive LGBTQ role model:

I just don’t want to mess up anything. I’m like very careful about what I do and what I say, and how I think, and the interactions I have with people, and the places I am, and what I’m trying to do. I don’t want anyone to say anything negative about me. But . . . I’m a human being. . . . In my mind, sometimes it makes me feel like, being a teacher, I have to like be in the closet, so to speak. (interview, February 27, 2012)

With regard to the fourth and final theme, better support and resources, participants identified few existing means of support that specifically were targeted to the needs of students from traditionally marginalized populations. Suggestions for improvement in this area included the provision of welcome packages that might include a compendium of resources for students from particular backgrounds, the development of supportive groups and organizations for students who share similar experiences, and better support of music concerts, festivals, and activities that explore culturally specific music. Also, several participants called for the development of a better and more consistent support structure for students of marginalized populations. However, Chris noted that schools of music should be careful that such attempts to better serve specific populations should not further alienate students who might already feel isolated:

I feel like if they called attention to it, I would feel more marginalized. You know? Like, oh . . . he’s the Black . . . make him feel welcome! Gifts and rainbows and cakes and stuff, ’cause you’re the only one that came this year, so good for you! Like, no . . . I appreciate that I was treated just like everyone else. I didn’t want to be, you know, called attention to the fact that I’m black or gay or both. (interview, February 27, 2012)

Discussion

Bohman (2012) suggested that those using a critical perspective should “explain what is wrong with current social reality, identify the actors to change it, and provide both clear norms for criticism and achievable practical goals for social transformation” (para. 3). Given that a stated goal of this study was to find ways to better the experiences of students from traditionally marginalized populations within undergraduate music education degree programs, this Discussion section will be organized into the three areas suggested by Bohman.

Congruent with previous research (Copeland & Levesque-Bristol, 2011; Denis et al., 2008), our findings suggest that the social reality experienced by our participants was complex and was mediated by myriad factors, including individual perseverance, professional mentorship, and external support from family and friends. Especially troubling were the numerous barriers to success discussed by participants. Data from the current study reveal that although most participants’ parents provided immense emotional support, they frequently lacked financial resources to provide individual mentorship via private lessons or were not able to help facilitate the formal process of applying to college. High school ensemble directors, private teachers, and peers from more privileged groups who were able to help participants wade through unfamiliar territory were invaluable. Although participants did not want to be singled out for their differences, they placed high value on the opportunity to see and interact with others like them who had succeeded. In line with previous research that espoused the importance of social connections (Grant-Vallone et al., 2004; Herrera et al., 2011; Hirt et al., 2008; Morales, 2010; Palmer & Young, 2009; Reyes, 2011; Torres & Hernandez, 2009), our participants all reported that personal attention received from professors and friends provided important motivation and helped nurture inward perseverance.

In order to identify actors who might be best equipped to change the current situation, we turn not only to our data but also to relevant literature. High school music teachers, private lesson teachers, and parents have been identified by previous literature as individuals who have the greatest influence on students from traditionally marginalized populations and their access to and retention within degree programs (Farmer-Hinton, 2008; Frenette, 2007; James & Taylor, 2008; Rickels et al., 2010; Whelchel, 2000). The findings of this study confirm these previous results, as the majority of participants identified their teachers and parents as individuals who were influential in their experiences as music education majors. In addition to teachers and parents, research also has identified same race and gender role models as those actors who are most capable of effecting change in the current circumstances regarding students from marginalized populations (Farmer & Hinton, 2008; Hamann & Walker, 1993; James & Taylor, 2008; Schwarz & Hill, 2010). The findings of this study also suggest that there may be a particular need for the involvement of mentors who identify as LGBTQ. In addition to high school teachers, private lesson teachers, and parents, the findings also suggest that faculty, staff, and fellow students within the university community may be able to help improve the access and retention of music education students from marginalized populations through support, increased communication, and facilitation of resources. Specific suggestions for making such improvements follow.

In order to provide norms for criticism of the institutionalized factors inherent in schools of music and programs of music education that might propagate unequal access and experiences, it is important to specify some achievable practical goals for social transformation. First, it is important that schools of music and programs of music education seek to identify institutionalized policies and procedures that might hinder access of prospective students from traditionally marginalized populations. To do this, each school might charge a committee with the task of examining the admissions and auditions procedures to identify and clarify “hidden rules” that may not be apparent to those from underresourced or historically marginalized communities. It also may be helpful for accreditation organizations, such as NASM (National Association of Schools of Music), to review policies and standards at each university to hold schools of music accountable for ensuring access to those from all populations.

Also, as stated by Koza (2008),

stringent and restrictive notions of what constitutes musical competence, together with narrow definitions of legitimate musical knowledge, shut out potential teachers from already underrepresented culture groups and are tying the hands of teacher educators at a time when greater diversity, both perspectival and corporeal, is needed in the music teaching pool. (p. 146)

Several of our participants had significant experience with non-Western art music, but even though this experience might be valuable to their future teaching careers, it usually was unacknowledged or even actively discouraged during the audition preparation process. Our participants also acknowledged a lack of understanding regarding policies and procedures required for admission to music education programs, suggesting that there may exist “hidden rules” that need to be articulated more effectively. To further assist deserving students, it may be helpful to develop initiatives to connect underrepresented students with assistance and support during the application and admissions process.

Second, schools of music and music education programs must continue to work with others to foster the betterment of public school music programs that historically have served students from marginalized populations. Unfortunately, a lack of resources early on can spark issues of inequity that affect our entire profession (Whelchel, 2000). Many students from traditionally marginalized populations, such as the participants in our study, attend public school music programs that lack resources. Further, the inability to afford private lesson instruction can hinder audition preparation for highly selective collegiate entrance auditions. This in turn produces a collegiate music education and professional music teaching population that lacks much-needed diversity. Koza (2008) wrote that too often, becoming a school music teacher, “a relatively modest aspiration in the musical world, hinges on early access to privilege and affluence, at least if a student’s goal is to attend a relatively prestigious school of music” (p. 147). As institutions, we must strive to rectify such inequalities by advocating for, working toward, partnering with, and seeking better resources for the public school music programs that serve historically marginalized student populations.

The ways that we might seek to better serve highly motivated and yet underresourced students within these communities are many. For example, due to a lack of private lessons and monetary resources, students from historically marginalized populations often are not able to participate in musically enriching activities, such as honor or all-state groups, even though several of our participants identified these activities as being especially valuable to their music development. Perhaps schools of music can host their own honor groups specifically targeted to reach highly motivated yet underresourced students from nearby school districts. Other options would be to bring such students to campus for lessons, summer music camps, concerts, and other performances. Once identified, these students might be paired with peer, staff, or faculty mentors who come from similar backgrounds.

In addition, the interaction between actors within the high school, home, and university communities needs to be facilitated. When considering the interaction between these communities, it is important to recognize that differences in educational levels, perceived social status, and availability of time may make it difficult for parents and music teachers to reach out to the university community (Hampton, Mumford, & Bond, 1998). The onus of responsibility for initiating and improving communication therefore should be placed on the university community. It is the responsibility of each school of music to designate actors and individuals who work to deliberately foster increased communication between the university, school music programs (including teachers), and students.

In this study, Larissa’s example of not knowing that she needed to audition separately for the school of music to become a music major is illustrative especially of the need for better communication between these parties. Larissa’s advice was for collegiate music programs to

have more connections with actually coming into the schools early, like even a year in advance or coming every year for one day or for one hour and having some students come down and talk to us, or even just faculty. (interview, March 9, 2012)

An opportune time to initiate such contact is presented when music education faculty and staff visit schools as part of their service and fieldwork obligations. Perhaps faculty routinely can bring admissions materials and information with them on such visits while also speaking directly with directors and students about the process of auditions and admissions at their institution and others like it. Similarly, music education faculty might arrange for their preservice teachers to hold “mock auditions” with detailed feedback for interested high school students in nearby schools in order to give both parties an opportunity to learn from one another. Music education faculty also may consider providing workshops on this topic at state and national practitioner conferences, where teachers can be encouraged to identify and better prepare underrepresented students who may be interested in pursuing music education as a career. Offices of admissions within schools of music also may wish to establish informational sessions at underrepresented schools for parents and students, where the process of admission is thoroughly explained and discussed with both parties well before the crucial senior year of high school.

Finally, it is imperative that we make the diversification of both university faculties and student bodies a priority. Our research demonstrates the lack of community and sense of isolation that many participants felt within their schools of music and programs of music education once they were enrolled. For example, Joshua stated,

The school of music, that was different. I felt like they started letting the black people out week by week. When I first got there, I hadn’t seen anybody that was black. . . . Being in music, I was like, this is kind of weird. And so then my 2nd week I met one black person. My 3rd week I saw someone else I didn’t know. I was like, where is everyone coming from, and where are the rest of you? (interview, March 9, 2012)

Our participants placed a high value on the formation of nurturing and mentoring relationships with both peers and individual faculty members with whom they shared characteristics. It is important that our institutions openly celebrate diversity of all types within the halls of our schools of music and our music education programs so that students are able to look around them and see, feel, and celebrate the presence of others like themselves. The specific suggestions provided in this article are but a starting point for ways to achieve this goal.

It is important to note the limitations of this current study and consider possibilities for future research on this topic. First, the three universities involved in the study each serve relatively similar populations, given each is a large state school with relatively competitive standards for admission. It may be possible that other types of institutions, such as smaller state schools, private institutions, and conservatories, may have different structures with regard to admissions standards, faculty-student interaction, and student population size. Authors of future research should examine the experiences of students within a variety of institutional settings. Graduate programs need to be explored similarly for their different systems of recruitment, admission, and retention. Because the experiences of historically marginalized students have been underresearched within the music education literature, future authors may seek to examine this issue from a variety of perspectives, such as within larger-scale survey designs and historical and mixed-methods studies. Finally, in light of research that suggests that many students of color perceive teaching to be a low-status profession (Gordon, 1994), authors of future studies may wish to examine the perceptions of high school music students from historically marginalized populations with regard to the status of music teaching and their motivation to pursue a music education degree.

Students from traditionally marginalized populations may have experiences with the process of preparation for, admission to, and retention within music education degree programs that differ in substantial ways from their peers. If the recruitment of such individuals into our profession is a priority, then we must seek to understand the ways that we can effectively prepare, admit, and retain such students within our programs of music education.

Supplemental Material

sj-pdf-1-jrm-10.1177_0022429414530760 – Supplemental material for Access and Retention of Marginalized Populations Within Undergraduate Music Education Degree Programs

Supplemental material, sj-pdf-1-jrm-10.1177_0022429414530760 for Access and Retention of Marginalized Populations Within Undergraduate Music Education Degree Programs by Kate R. Fitzpatrick, Jacqueline C. Henninger and Don M. Taylor in Journal of Research in Music Education

Footnotes

Supplemental Material

The Appendix is available at .

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Kate R. Fitzpatrick is an assistant professor of music education at the University of Michigan. Her research interests include urban music education, marginalized populations in music education, and mixed methods research.

Jacqueline C. Henninger is a Fulbright Scholar-Lecturer and Researcher at Tumaini University Makumira in Tanzania, East Africa. Her research interests are in music teacher preparation and the teaching and learning of music representative of different cultures.

Don M. Taylor is an associate professor at the University of North Texas. His research interests center around issues of social justice, with particular emphasis on the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and questioning community.

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