A Comparison of Virginia Band Performance Assessments in Relation to Director Gender

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to compare the concert band assessments of male-directed ensembles and female-directed ensembles in the state of Virginia. Data included overall ratings of male-directed and female-directed bands (N = 3,229) that performed at District Concert Assessments held across the state in the past 6 years (2013–2018), which were publicly available on the website of the Virginia Band and Orchestra Directors Association. Results showed a statistically significant association between ratings and director gender at both the middle school and high school levels. In both instances, male-directed ensembles were more likely to receive a I rating, whereas female-directed ensembles were more likely to receive a II rating. This association was more pronounced at the high school level. Implications include a need for further exploration of possible bias in band festival rating systems as well as increased sensitivity to equitable hiring and representation of women in the field of secondary band teaching.

Keywords

adjudicated events conductor gender performance ratings secondary instrumental music sex/gender equity

Although recent reconceptualization of gender characterizes it as a spectrum rather than a dichotomy, imbalances in traditional male/female representation persist in certain roles within the music education profession. Specifically, women have been drastically underrepresented in the field of secondary band teaching. Although 58.9% of high school teachers, 72.5% of middle school teachers, and 68.1% of “arts and music” teachers at all levels in the United States were female in 2015–2016 (National Center for Education Statistics, 2017), the percentage of band teachers who were female ranged from 24.2% to 32.7% during the years 1996 to 2012 (Heston et al., 1996; Leimer, 2012; Music Educators National Conference, 2001). This gender imbalance tends to be more pronounced at the high school level, with recent research indicating that women have made up approximately 37% of junior high/middle school band directors but only 18% to 25% of high school band directors (Leimer, 2012; Music Educators National Conference, 2001). In a study by Greaves-Spurgeon (1998), a mere 9.4% of high school bands in Georgia had a female director or assistant director, with most of those being small and/or rural schools. Sheldon and Hartley (2012) found that men accounted for 92.4% of primary conductors featured at the Midwest Band and Orchestra Clinic since its inception and 83% of conductors during the 2000s. As of 2008, 35 of the 52 total female-led bands that have performed at this event were junior high/middle school groups, only 15 were high school level, and none were university level.

The fact that there are far fewer women in secondary band teaching positions may be related to assumptions about what a band director should be and look like, specifically, the common gendering of secondary band teachers as male. Griswold and Chroback (1991) asked undergraduate students to rate the masculinity/femininity of the categories of “instrumental conductor” and “choral conductor,” and results indicated the position of instrumental conductor was perceived as masculine and choral conductor as feminine. In an examination of drawings depicting teachers created by 150 music education students in Canada, China, and the United States, Dolloff (2014) found a prevalence of male teachers drawn by instrumental music education students, noting that “there were no women portrayed, even by women. This seems to uphold the image of the male band conductor” (p. 24). Visual representations in publications also reinforce this image. In a content analysis of The Instrumentalist magazine over 2 years (2000–2002), McWilliams (2003) found that only 9% of the 368 images of band conductors or wind band experts featured in the 24 issues were female. Although they did not differentiate between choral and instrumental conductors, Kruse et al. (2015) discovered that women made up only 21% of all photographs depicting conductors in Music Educators Journal during the years 1962 to 2011, and the issues published in 2001 featured zero photographs of female conductors.

Due to the underrepresentation of women in the band teaching profession, a number of researchers have investigated the unique experiences and perceptions of female band directors at the secondary level (Bovin, 2019; Coen-Mishlan, 2015; Fischer-Croneis, 2016; Gathen, 2014; Greaves-Spurgeon, 1998; Jones, 2010; Mullan, 2014; Sears, 2010, 2014, 2017). These studies have revealed numerous challenges faced by female band directors, including a lack of female role models in these positions (Gathen, 2014; Jones, 2010; Mullan, 2014). To fit in to the heavily masculinized profession, many female band directors feel pressure to alter the way they dress or act to conform to expectations of traditional masculinity (Draves, 2018; Fischer-Croneis, 2016; Greaves-Spurgeon, 1998; Sears, 2010, 2014, 2017). Many also have experienced challenges in the hiring process and/or a perception of not being taken seriously by administrators (Bovin, 2019; Coen-Mishlan, 2015; Fischer-Croneis, 2016; Greaves-Spurgeon, 1998; Mullan, 2014; Sears, 2010, 2014, 2017). For example, one of Sears’s (2014) participants stated, “I definitely think that people like administration or supervisors or whoever’s interviewing for those jobs definitely take women less seriously. . . . Having a man’s face on that role is more accepted than putting a young female face on that role” (pp. 6–7).

Many female band directors have expressed feelings of isolation and exclusion due to the small number of women in the field and the existence of what participants in numerous studies have referred to as the “Good Old Boys Club” (Bovin, 2019; Coen-Mishlan, 2015; Fischer-Croneis, 2016; Gathen, 2014; Greaves-Spurgeon, 1998; Jones, 2010; Mullan, 2014; Sears, 2010). They experience this most notably when attending meetings, competitions, or other events in which they feel outnumbered by their male colleagues and may even perceive that they are not accepted or taken seriously in these settings. In a study of female instrumental music education students, Robinson (2010) found that feelings of isolation and exclusion from this “old boys club” was a reason several of his participants decided not to pursue careers in secondary band teaching, one participant saying, “It’s hard for women to be taken seriously as directors sometimes because the system is so male-dominated” (p. 40).

In addition to these feelings of isolation and exclusion, some female band directors experience explicit discrimination from their colleagues (Bovin, 2019; Gathen, 2014; Jones, 2010; Mullan, 2014). One of Mullan’s (2014) participants “expressed concerns that the male directors do not treat female band directors as equals” (p. 133). A participant in Gathen’s (2014) study said,

You can tell which band directors look down on you for being a woman. . . . Last year at one of the clinics . . . there was a female director there and there were a few of the “good ole boys” . . . and they were standing in the back kind of talking, making fun of the woman on the podium. (p. 58)

According to one participant in Jones’s (2010) study, “That is where I found gender discrimination. . . . Not from the [band] members. Totally from my colleagues” (p. 47).

Besides feeling that they are treated differently than their male peers, some female band directors express a perception that they are judged differently in competitions and other adjudicated events (Coen-Mishlan, 2015; Mullan, 2014; Sears, 2010, 2014). A participant in Mullan’s (2014) study described her experiences with festivals:

I would go to festivals and just get trashed. The judges were brutal and then you’d sit there and listen to a male directors [sic] band and they sounded about the same as your band, but their rating was much higher. (p. 131)

Several of Coen-Mishlan’s (2015) participants also felt that their bands were judged more critically at adjudicated events, having experiences that led them “to question their ratings at contest, and question whether being a female director was an influence” (p. 12).

A number of researchers have examined ratings from adjudicated performance events in the United States, such as state festivals/contests. Hash (2013) and Mick and Pope (2018) found differences in ratings between middle and high school ensembles, with middle school groups generally receiving lower scores than high school groups. Similarly, ensembles performing more difficult classifications of music may tend to receive higher ratings than those performing easier music (Hash, 2012, 2013; Mick & Pope, 2018), and larger bands may tend to be rated more highly than smaller bands (King & Burnsed, 2009).

Although many female band directors feel they are judged differently because of their gender, no research exists that quantitatively examines band contest/festival ratings in relation to director gender. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the concert band assessments of male-directed ensembles and female-directed ensembles in the state of Virginia during the years 2013 through 2018. Specific research questions included the following: (1) Is there a significant association between overall ensemble rating and director gender at the middle school level? and (2) Is there a significant association between overall ensemble rating and director gender at the high school level?

Method

Data in this study consisted of information from District Concert Assessments sponsored by the Virginia Band and Orchestra Directors Association (VBODA) during the years 2013 through 2018. The state is divided into 16 districts, each of which annually hosts a separate VBODA District Concert Assessment event. The assessment typically involves a performance of three prepared pieces chosen from a predetermined list, and this prepared performance is evaluated by three judges. Participants have the option of performing either a fourth prepared piece or a sight-reading exercise, the latter of which is evaluated by a fourth judge. Each ensemble/director is visible to all judges, and all ratings utilize a 5-point scale, with I being superior and V being poor. Finally, each ensemble is awarded an overall rating, typically consisting of the average of all judges’ ratings. In the event that four judges’ ratings are evenly split, the prepared performance average is used to break the tie. Additionally, the VBODA Administrative Handbook (2016) includes a chart that outlines how to determine overall ratings when the prepared performance average and the sight-reading score differ by more than 1 point.

Results from past District Concert Assessments are available to the public through an archive on the VBODA website (VBODA, 2018). This archive is organized by year, district, and ensemble type (band/orchestra) and provides information about each individual ensemble performance, including judge names, school name, ensemble name, director name, difficulty/grade of music performed, performance ratings from each judge, average performance rating, sight-reading rating, and overall rating. Although the VBODA archive contains annual assessment results dating back to 2002, it did not include director names prior to 2013; thus, we examined ratings from 2013 through 2018.

We accessed all archived reports for band events during the specified time period and created a database into which we transferred information for all available band assessment results that included the complete (first and last) name of each director. Information recorded for each ensemble performance included year, school level (high school or middle school), director name(s), and overall ratings. Occasionally, listings for certain districts and/or levels were missing from the archive, and one district listed only last names in 2014. All other available assessment results were included in the initial database, yielding a total of 3,459 ensemble performances during the 6-year period.

We then coded each ensemble performance according to the assumed gender (male/female) of the director(s). As two Caucasian American women from different regions of the United States, we inferred assumed gender based on whether the director’s first name has traditionally been gendered as male or female in the United States.¹ If the first name of a director was ambiguous or gender-neutral (e.g., Robin, Jamie), we performed an internet search to ascertain gender. If this did not yield any information regarding director gender (e.g., pronouns, title, photograph), we removed that ensemble performance from the database. In some instances, more than one person was listed as director. If both directors listed were assumed to be female, we coded the ensemble as female-directed. Similarly, if both directors listed were assumed to be male, we coded the ensemble as male-directed. Any ensemble performances that listed both a male and a female director were coded as mixed-gender. Further examination of the database revealed that some ensemble performances were missing ratings or were designated as CO (comments only). These were also removed from the database, resulting in a remaining total of 3,324 ensemble performances for which assumed director gender and ratings were known.

Of the total sample of 3,324 ensemble performances, 74.28% (n = 2,469) featured male directors, 22.86% (n = 760) featured female directors, and 2.86% (n = 95) featured mixed-gender co-directors, as shown in Table 1. This total sample was comprised of 1,829 high school ensemble performances and 1,495 middle school ensemble performances. Table 1 provides director gender percentages at each of these levels. Because the purpose of this study was to compare ratings of male-directed ensembles to those of female-directed ensembles, we removed ensembles with mixed-gender co-directors from further analysis. This left 3,229 ensemble performances directed by men or women, of which 1,810 were high school ensembles and 1,419 were middle school ensembles.

Table 1.

Percentages of Ensemble Performances with Male, Female, and Mixed-Gender Directors, by Level.

Sample	Male% (N)	Female% (N)	Mixed-Gender% (N)
Total sample	74.28 (2,469)	22.86 (760)	2.86 (95)
Middle school	60.54 (905)	34.38 (514)	5.08 (76)
High school	85.51 (1,564)	13.45 (246)	1.04 (19)

Results

The mean overall rating for the entire sample of male-directed and female-directed ensemble performances (N = 3,229) was 1.61 on a scale of 1 (high) to 5 (low). Table 2 shows the percentages of male-directed and female-directed ensembles receiving each rating category among the total sample, middle school bands, and high school bands, with bold type indicating the mode score for each gender. Because 91.5% of all ratings received by male- or female-directed ensembles fell into the I or II categories and there were similar percentages of male- and female-directed ensembles receiving III or IV ratings, we removed the III and IV ratings from further analysis. Therefore, we treated the dependent variable as categorial and used the chi-square independence test to answer our research questions. However, the assumption of independence of observations was violated due to the fact that there were many directors listed multiple times in the database because they participated in multiple years and/or with multiple groups. To alleviate this issue, we identified all directors who appeared in the database more than once and used a random number generator to identify only one listing for each director to use in the chi-square analyses. Figure 1 compares the number of each type of ensemble included in this narrowed sample of 730 total performances. An alpha level of .05 was set as the threshold of statistical significance.

Table 2.

Percentages of Ensembles Receiving Each Rating, by Director Gender.

Gender	I Rating% (N)	II Rating% (N)	III Rating% (N)	IV Rating% (N)	V Rating% (N)
All ensemble performances
Male	50.95 (1,258)	40.83 (1,008)	7.65 (189)	0.57 (14)	0.00 (0)
Female	37.63 (286)	52.89 (402)	9.21 (70)	0.26 (2)	0.00 (0)
Middle school ensemble performances
Male	43.76 (396)	43.98 (398)	11.49 (104)	0.77 (7)	0.00 (0)
Female	35.41 (182)	53.50 (275)	10.89 (56)	0.19 (1)	0.00 (0)
High school ensemble performances
Male	55.11 (862)	39.00 (610)	5.43 (85)	0.45 (7)	0.00 (0)
Female	42.28 (104)	51.63 (127)	5.69 (14)	0.41 (1)	0.00 (0)

Note. Bold type indicates the mode score for each gender.

Figure 1.

Number/Comparison of I and II Ratings Included in Chi-Square Analyses.

Results of the chi-square test for the first research question revealed a statistically significant association between overall rating and director gender among middle school ensembles, χ²(1) = 5.58, p = .018, ϕ = .126. For the second research question, chi-square test results also revealed a statistically significant association between overall rating and director gender at the high school level, χ²(1) = 8.92, p = .003, ϕ = .153. At both the middle school and high school levels, male-directed ensembles were more likely to receive a I rating and female-directed ensembles more likely to receive a II rating.

Discussion

Results of this study showed a statistically significant association between performance rating and director gender at concert band assessments in the state of Virginia at both the middle school and high school levels. Additionally, this association was more pronounced at the high school level. Although still underrepresented in the field of secondary band teaching in general, women tend to be more represented at the middle school level than the high school level, as indicated by the results of this study as well as others (Greaves-Spurgeon, 1998; Leimer, 2012; Music Educators National Conference, 2001; Sheldon & Hartley, 2012). Similarly, the position of middle school band director tends to be less heavily gendered as masculine than the position of high school band director (Greaves-Spurgeon, 1998; Jones, 2010; Robinson, 2010; Sears, 2010, 2017). Therefore, it is notable that the association between performance rating and director gender was more pronounced at the high school level, which tends to be more heavily gendered as a male position.

One limitation of the current study is that because it did not use an experimental design, we cannot definitively infer the cause behind the association between ensemble ratings and director gender. However, it is worth reflecting on possible explanations for this finding. One explanation might be that societal norms expect and permit men to display the behaviors and characteristics that are associated with being a successful band director, such as assertiveness and competitiveness, whereas these traits may be less expected and/or acceptable in women (Bovin, 2019; Fischer-Croneis, 2016; Sears, 2010). Another potential explanation for the association between ensemble ratings and director gender could be that women are more likely to be hired for band teaching jobs in smaller and/or rural schools/districts (Greaves-Spurgeon, 1998), which may be more likely to earn lower ratings than ensembles from larger school districts (King & Burnsed, 2009). Finally, female-directed bands may receive lower ratings than male-directed bands as a result of gender bias, either explicit or implicit. One possibility is that gender bias might influence judges to rate female-directed groups differently than male-directed groups. Given that previous research findings suggest larger ensembles or those performing more difficult classifications of music may tend to receive higher ratings than smaller ensembles or those performing easier music (Hash, 2012, 2013; King & Burnsed, 2009; Mick & Pope, 2018), it is also possible that gender bias may be an influence in the hiring practices that lead to greater numbers of men than women securing jobs in larger, more prestigious programs that are likely to perform more advanced repertoire.

Suggestions for Future Research

To examine the possibility that the association between ratings and director gender is related to school size, a follow-up study might be conducted in which data regarding school size are gathered and incorporated into the analysis. To investigate whether gender bias is indeed an influence in judging, future research might be modeled after existing studies in which researchers have manipulated audio recordings to align with different video clips depicting performers with varying physical characteristics to investigate the influence of appearance, such as race or quality of attire, on judges’ ratings of their performance (Davidson & Edgar, 2003; Elliott, 1995; Howard, 2012). VanWeelden (2002, 2004), and VanWeelden and McGee (2007) conducted similar studies in which video footage of conductors was synchronized with separate audio recordings to investigate the effects of conductor body type and conductor race on judges’ ratings. A similar study could involve asking judges to rate videos depicting male and female band conductors that have been aligned with the same audio (to control for performance quality) and analyze whether associations exist between ratings and gender. In addition, Armes (2019) adapted an instrument designed to measure gender bias in business workplace contexts for use in researching perceptions of women in music education hiring, which could prove fruitful as a tool for future studies on gender bias in secondary band teaching.

Future research might also examine the extent to which gender-related associations in ratings exist in other circumstances. Researchers could replicate the current study using data from adjudicated band performance events in other states to ascertain if ratings of male- and female-directed ensembles differ in those geographical areas. A similar study of data from orchestral or choral events could investigate whether associations between ensemble ratings and director gender exist in those areas as well.

Another possible focus for future research could be on the gender of the judges at adjudicated events. Although the current study did not examine any data pertaining to judges, judge names were available in the VBODA archive and could easily be coded according to gender to see whether the gender imbalance among secondary band teachers also exists among judges. In an examination of adjudicators hired to judge Florida Bandmasters Association Music Performance Assessment events, Leimer (2012) found that during the 2010–2011 school year, only 18.5% of all adjudicators were female, and in the 10 school years spanning from 2001 to 2011, judges at State Concert Band events were 100% male. In addition to conducting similar studies in other states, future researchers might investigate the extent to which ratings given by male judges might differ from ratings given by female judges in relation to director gender.

Implications for Music Education

The potential for bias, conscious or unconscious/implicit,² to influence judges’ ratings may exist in part as a result of the lack of clarity and/or objectivity in the rating system itself, which is worthy of examination. The VBODA Performance Assessment Rubric (VBODA, n.d.-b) does outline a list of seven categories that each judge should evaluate and then use to determine overall performance rating, including sample indicators for each category. However, some of the indicator language is subjective, such as “radiates confidence” under the general factors category. There is also a degree of subjectivity in the scale used to rate the categories, which consists of 5 points ranging from consistently to almost never. This vague language may result in subjective interpretation that potentially could be influenced by implicit biases. The VBODA Adjudicator Instructions (VBODA, n.d.-a) also include language that suggests a level of subjectivity. These instructions state that judges “do not have to address every item on the rubric” but rather should “use it as a guide” (p. 1), suggesting that the rubric may not be used in a consistent and objective way by all judges. Conversely, the instructions state that “consulting with other adjudicators on a final rating is permitted” (p. 2), implying that one judge’s ratings could sway those of another judge. These and other opportunities for subjectivity allow the possibility for unconscious biases, including those related to director gender, to affect judges’ ratings. It is important that persons involved in the formation and implementation of rating systems and tools are aware of the potential for implicit biases to emerge from subjective scales and actively work to make these tools and their use as objective as possible.

The results of this study indicate that although improving, a gender imbalance still exists in the secondary band teaching profession. Discrimination in the hiring process may be one possible explanation for this persistent gender imbalance, as suggested by findings of existing research (Fischer-Croneis, 2016; Greaves-Spurgeon, 1998; Mullan, 2014; Sears, 2010, 2014). It is critical that those involved in the hiring process examine their own biases and actively work toward more equitable hiring of men and women. It is also crucial to strive for more equitable representation of women in the field of secondary band teaching. Rather than reinforcing the common image of conductor as male (Dolloff, 2014; Griswold & Chroback, 1991; Kruse et al., 2015; McWilliams, 2003; Sheldon & Hartley, 2012), music educators and music teacher educators might actively work to provide students with images of women in these teaching roles.

It should be noted that although results of this study indicated a statistically significant association between ensemble ratings and director gender, effect sizes were small. This is not surprising considering 91.7% of all ensembles (including mixed-gender) received a rating of I or II and none received a V rating. Because the entire span of the 5-point scale was not utilized, as is typical in many adjudicated events (Boeckman, 2002; Hash, 2012, 2013; Mick & Pope, 2018), it makes sense that there would be only slight variance in scores and thus minimal effect sizes found. However, small effect size does not directly imply that the findings of this study are without meaning.

It is notable that the percentages of male directors receiving ratings of III, IV, or V are remarkably similar to the percentages of female directors receiving ratings in these categories, differing by only as much as 1.56 percentage points. In light of these similarities, the much greater differences between male and female percentages under the I and II ratings categories are striking. Although these differences are subtle in terms of effect size, they are meaningful because they represent subtle perceptions of discrimination sensed by many female band directors (Bovin, 2019; Coen-Mishlan, 2015; Fischer-Croneis, 2016; Gathen, 2014; Greaves-Spurgeon, 1998; Jones, 2010; Mullan, 2014; Sears, 2010, 2014, 2017). The women who participated in these studies were not explicitly told they were incapable of doing the job, yet they described instances in which they experienced challenges in the hiring process and/or a perception that they were not being taken seriously because of their gender. Similarly, these female band directors did not describe receiving extremely low band festival scores but rather a sense that their male counterparts were receiving higher ratings for the same general level of performance quality. Just as a small effect size may not be “visible to the naked eye” (Cohen, as cited in Sullivan & Feinn, 2012, p. 280) and yet is “not so small as to be trivial” (Sullivan & Feinn, 2012, p. 281), neither is a great deal of gender discrimination. As described by participants in the aforementioned studies, gender discrimination may be subtle and not always immediately visible to the casual observer, but that does not mean it is not there and worthy of attention and questioning. Further investigation of gender-related issues and interrogation of current practices are necessary for the field of music education to continue progressing toward more inclusivity and equity for students and teachers of all backgrounds.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Heather Nelson Shouldice

Notes

Author Biographies

Heather Nelson Shouldice is associate professor of music education at Eastern Michigan University. Her research interests include music teacher beliefs and their relationships to teaching practice and musical identity development.

Jessica L. Eastridge teaches middle school band at River Bend Middle School in Loudoun County, Virginia. Her research interests include gender bias in music education and improvisation.

References

Armes

J. W.

(2019, September 12–14). Measuring the communality deficit in secondary band positions: A confirmatory factor analysis [Poster presentation]. Symposium on Music Teacher Education, Greensboro, NC, United States.

Boeckman

(2002). Grade inflation in band contest ratings: A trend study. Journal of Band Research, 38(1), 25–36.

Bovin

A. J.

(2019). Breaking the silence: The phenomenology of the female high school band director. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 38(1), 34–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/8755123319841664

Coen-Mishlan

(2015). Gender discrimination in the band world: A case study of three female band directors. Excellence in Performing Arts Research, 2, Article 1. https://doi.org/10.21038/epar.2014.0104

Davidson

J. W.

Edgar

(2003). Gender and race bias in the judgement of Western art music performance. Music Education Research, 5(2), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461380032000085540

Dolloff

(2014). Evoking beliefs about music teaching and learning. GEMS (Gender, Education, Music & Society), 7(5), 22–28. https://doi.org/10.5561/gems.v7i5.5235

Draves

T. J.

(2018). Molly and Rachel become band teachers: Teacher identity construction during music student teaching. Contributions to Music Education, 43, 95–115.

Elliott

C. A.

(1995). Race and gender as factors in judgments of musical performance. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 127, 50–56. https://www-jstor-org-443.web.bisu.edu.cn/stable/40318766

Fischer-Croneis

S. H.

(2016). Career intentions and experiences of pre- and in-service female band teachers. Journal of Research in Music Education, 64(2), 179–201. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429416650167

10.

Gathen

(2014). Gender and bias in music education (Publication No. 1562378) [Master’s thesis, University of Delaware]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.

11.

Greaves-Spurgeon

B. B.

(1998). Women high school band directors in Georgia (Publication No. 9836928) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.

12.

Greenwald

A. G.

Krieger

L. H.

(2006). Implicit bias: Scientific foundations. California Law Review, 94(4), 945–967.

13.

Griswold

P. A.

Chroback

D. A.

(1991). Sex-role associations of music instruments and occupations by gender and major. Journal of Research in Music Education, 29(1), 57–62. https://doi.org/ 10.2307/3344680

14.

Hash

P. M.

(2012). An analysis of the ratings of interrater reliability of high school band contests. Journal of Research in Music Education, 60(1), 81–100. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429411434932

15.

Hash

P. M.

(2013). An analysis of middle/high school band and orchestra festival ratings. Journal of Band Research, 49(1), 1–20.

16.

Heston

M. L.

Dedrick

Raschke

Whitehead

(1996). Job satisfaction and stress among band directors. Journal of Research in Music Education, 44(4), 319–327. https://doi.org/10.2307/3345444

17.

Howard

S. A.

(2012). The effect of selected nonmusical factors on adjudicators’ ratings of high school solo vocal performances. Journal of Research in Music Education, 60(2), 166–185. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429412444610

18.

Jones

S. K.

(2010). “Marching Barbies”: Influences of gender bias in three female high school band teachers (Publication No. 1485626) [Master’s thesis, Michigan State University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.

19.

King

S. E.

Burnsed

(2009). A study of the reliability of adjudicator ratings at the 2005 Virginia band and orchestra directors association state marching band festivals. Journal of Band Research, 45(1), 27–32, 62–63.

20.

Kruse

A. J.

Giebelhausen

Shouldice

H. N.

Ramsey

A. L.

(2015). Male and female photographic representation in 50 years of Music Educators Journal. Journal of Research in Music Education, 62(4), 485–500. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429414555910

21.

Leimer

M. C.

(2012). Female band directors and adjudicators in Florida (Publication No. 1515769) [Master’s thesis, The Florida State University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.

22.

McWilliams

H. J.

(2003). Gender equity issues in the depiction of females in The Instrumentalist magazine (August 2000-July 2002) (Publication No. 3089721) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.

23.

Mick

J. P.

Pope

D. A.

(2018). An analysis of ratings and interrater reliability of adjudicated orchestra festivals. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 219, 49–68. https://www-jstor-org-443.web.bisu.edu.cn/stable/10.5406/bulcouresmusedu.218.0049

24.

Mullan

A. M.

(2014). A qualitative study of female high school band directors (Publication No. 3631539) [Doctoral dissertation, Saint Mary’s College of California]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.

25.

Music Educators National Conference. (2001). Gender trends among MENC music educators. Teaching Music, 8(6), 52–53.

26.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2017). 2015 - 16 National teacher and principal survey.

27.

Robinson

(2010). From the band room to the general music classroom: Why instrumentalists choose to teach general music. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 185, 33–48. https://www-jstor-org-443.web.bisu.edu.cn/stable/41110364

28.

Sears

(2014). The persona problem: How expectations of masculinity shape female band director identity. GEMS (Gender, Education, Music, & Society), 7(4), 4–11. https://doi.org/10.5561/gems.v7i4.5217

29.

Sears

C. A.

(2017). “Put your big girl panties on!”: A female band director’s career in a culture of masculinity. In Talbot

B. C.

(Ed.), Marginalized voices in music education (pp. 99–113). Routledge.

30.

Sears

C. A. Q.

(2010). Paving their own way: Experiences of female high school band directors (Publication No. 3424962) [Doctoral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.

31.

Sheldon

D. A.

Hartley

L. A.

(2012). What color is your baton, girl? Gender and ethnicity in band conducting. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 192, 39–52. https://doi.org/10.5406/bulcouresmusedu.192.0039

32.

Sullivan

G. M.

Feinn

(2012). Using effect size—Or why the p value is not enough. Journal of Graduate Medical Education, 4(3), 279–282. https://doi.org/10.4300/JGME-D-12-00156.1

33.

VanWeelden

(2002). Relationships between perceptions of conducting effectiveness and ensemble performance. Journal of Research in Music Education, 50(2), 165–176. https://doi.org/10.2307/3345820

34.

VanWeelden

(2004). Racially stereotyped music and conductor race: Perceptions of performance. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 160, 38–48. https://www-jstor-org-443.web.bisu.edu.cn/stable/40319217

35.

VanWeelden

McGee

I. R.

(2007). The influence of music style and conductor race on perceptions of ensemble and conductor performance. International Journal of Music Education, 25(1), 7–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761407074886

36.

Virginia Band and Orchestra Directors Association. (n.d.-a). Adjudicator instructions. http://www.vboda.org/documents/Concert-Assessment/General-Info/VBODA%20Assessment%20Standards%202012.pdf

37.

Virginia Band and Orchestra Directors Association. (n.d.-b). Performance assessment rubric. http://www.vboda.org/documents/Concert-Assessment/Forms/Adjudicator/Band/Band%20Performance%20-%20Rubric.pdf

38.

Virginia Band and Orchestra Directors Association. (2016). Administrative handbook. https://www.vboda.org/index.php/resources-2017/documents/administrative-handbook.html

39.

Virginia Band and Orchestra Directors Association. (2018). Past assessment results. https://www.vboda.org/index.php/past-assessment-results.html