Descriptions and discussions of students with learning disabilities (LD) commonly state that these students have an external locus of control. A methodological analysis of 22 comparative and descriptive studies of locus of control among students with LD conducted between 1982 and 1999 is presented in this article. Serious concerns and deficiencies regarding participant selection and description present in numerous studies are discussed. Serious concerns are also noted regarding the use and nature of the locus-of-control measures as well as the relationships between the data and conclusions drawn by some authors. On the basis of the available data using locus-of-control measures, it appears inaccurate to state that students with LD have an external locus of control. Recommendations for future research are noted; the complex nature of factors affecting motivation and self-evaluations among students with LD has only begun to be explored.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Alderman, K. (1999). Motivation for achievement. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
2.
Bender, W.N. (1987). Secondary personality and behavioral problems in adolescents with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 20, 280-285.
Choi, I., Nisbett, R.E., & Norenzayan, A. (1999). Causal attribution across cultures: Variation and universality. Psychological Bulletin,125(1), 47-63.
5.
Council for Learning Disabilities Research Committee: Smith, D.D., Deshler, D., Hallahan, D., Lovitt, T., Robinson, S., Voress, J., & Ysseldyke, J. (1984). Minimum standards for the description of subjects in learning disabilities research reports. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 7, 221-225.
6.
Council for Learning Disabilities Research Committee: Rosenberg, M.S., Bott, D., Majsterek, D., Chiang, B., Gartland, D., Wesson, C., Graham, S., Smith-Myles, B., Miller, M., Swanson, H.L., Bender, W., Rivera, D., & Wilson, R. (1992). Minimum standards for the description of participants in learning disabilities research. Learning Disabilities Quarterly , 15, 65-70.
7.
Crandall, V.C., Katkovsky, W., & Crandall, V.J. (1965). Children's beliefs in their own control of reinforcements in intellectual-academic achievement situations . Child Development, 36, 91-109.
8.
Durrant, J. (1993). Attributions for achievement outcomes among behavioral subgroups of children with learning disabilities. The Journal of Special Education, 27, 306-320.
Harris, K.R., Graham, S., & Pressley, M. (1992). Cognitive-behavioral approaches in reading and written language: Developing self-regulated learners. In N. N. Singh & I. L. Beale (Eds.), Learning disabilities: Nature, theory and treatment (pp. 415-451). New York: Springer Verlag.
11.
Harter, S., Whitesell, N.R., & Junkin, L.J. (1998). Similarities and differences in domain-specific and global self-evaluations of learning-disabled, behaviorally disordered, and normally achieving adolescents. American Educational Research Journal, 35, 653-680.
12.
Lawrence, E.A., & Winschel, J.F. (1975). Locus of control: Implications for special education. Exceptional Children, 41, 483-490.
13.
Licht, B.G. (1983). Cognitive-motivational factors that contribute to achievement of learning-disabled students. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 16, 483-490.
14.
Licht, B.G. (1993). Achievement-related beliefs in children with learning disabilities: Impact on motivation and strategic learning. In L. J. Meltzer (Ed.), Strategy assessment and instruction (pp. 195-220). Austin, TX: PRO-ED .
15.
Light, R.J., & Pillemer, D.B. (1984). Summing up: The science of reviewing research. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
16.
Lysynchuk, L.M., Pressley, M., d'Ailly, H., Smith, M., & Cake, H. (1989). A methodological analysis of experimental studies of comprehension strategy instruction. Reading Research Quarterly , 24, 458-470.
17.
Nowicki, S., & Strickland, B.R. (1973). A locus of control scale for children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 40, 148-154.
18.
Pearl, R. (1992). Psychosocial characteristics of learning disabled students. In N. N. Singh & I. L. Beale (Eds.), Learning disabilities: Nature, theory and treatment (pp. 96-125). New York: Springer Verlag.
19.
Rogers, H., & Saklofske, D.H. (1985). Self-concepts, locus of control and performance expectations of learning disabled children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 18, 273-278.
20.
Rotter, J. (1954). Social learning and clinical psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
21.
Rotter, J. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 1 (Whole No. 609).
22.
Rotter, J. (1975). Some problems and misconceptions related to the construct of internal versus external control of reinforcement. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 56-67.
Schunk, D.H. (1991). Learning theories: An educational perspective . New York: Macmillan.
25.
Searcy, J.D., & Hawkins-Searcy, J. (1979). Locus of control research and its implications for child personality. In A. J. Finch & P. C. Kendall (Eds.), Clinical treatment and research in child psychopathology (pp. 75-102). New York: Spectrum.
26.
Senf, G.M. (1987). Learning disabilities as sociologic sponge: Wiping up life's spills. In S. Vaughn & C. S. Bos (Eds.), Research in learning disabilities: Issues and future directions (pp. 87-96). Boston : College Hill Press.
27.
Shephard, L., Smith, M., & Vojir, C. (1983). Characteristics of pupils identified as learning disabled. American Education Research Journal, 20, 309-331.
28.
Smith, T.E.C., Dowdy, C., Polloway, E.A., & Blalock, G.E. (1997). Children and adults with learning disabilities . Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
29.
Stipek, D.J. (1984). Young children's performance expectations: Logical analysis or wishful thinking?Advances in Motivation and Achievement , 3, 33-56.
Tur-Kaspa, H., & Bryan, T. (1993). Social attributions of students with learning disabilities. Exceptionality, 4, 229-243.
32.
Weiner, B. (1979). A theory of motivation for some classroom experiences . Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 3-25.
33.
Weiner, B. (1986). An attributional theory of motivation and emotion . New York: Springer Verlag.
34.
Weisz, J., & Stipek, D. (1982). Competence, contingency, and the development of perceived control. Human Development, 25, 250-281.
35.
Wilkinson, L., & The APA Task Force on Statistical Inference. (1999). Statistical methods in psychology journals: Guidelines and explanations [On-line]. American Psychologist, 54, 594-604. Available: www.apa.org/journals/amp/amp548594.html
