Examining the Influence of Teacher Behavior and Classroom Context on the Behavioral and Academic Outcomes for Students With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online February, 2008
Examining the Influence of Teacher Behavior and Classroom Context on the Behavioral and Academic Outcomes for Students With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
Many students with emotional or behavioral disorders (EBD) display both learning and behavioral problems that make it difficult for teachers to provide effective instruction. In turn, a lack of exposure to effective instruction contributes to poor academic and behavioral outcomes. In this article, the authors argue that the interaction between the learning and behavior problems of students with EBD is complex and likely characterized by multiple influences, including classroom contextual factors. The authors detail (a) ways that teacher instructional behaviors and classroom contexts may contribute to the relationship between learning and behavior problems of students with EBD and (b) assessment procedures helpful for measuring classroom contextual variables. Implications for future research are discussed, including using data gleaned from applied research to inform future randomized clinical trials examining classroom-based interventions for students with EBD.
Alberto, P.A., & Troutman, A.C. (1999). Applied behavior analysis for teachers (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
2.
Anderson, J.A., Kutash, K., & Duchnowski, A.J. (2001). A comparison of the academic progress of students with EBD and students with LD. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 9, 106—115.
3.
Asmus, J.M., Conroy, M.A., Ladwig, C.N., Boyd, B., & Sellers, J. (2004). Social skills interview. Unpublished document .
4.
Baer, D.M., Wolf, M.M., & Risley, T.R. (1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 91—97.
5.
Baron, R.M., & Kenny, D.A. (1986). The moderator—mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173—1182.
6.
Brophy, J.E., & Good, T.L. (1986). Teacher behavior and student achievement. In M. L. Wittock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 328—375). New York: Macmillan.
7.
Carnine, D.W. (1976). Effects of two teacher-presentation rates on off-task behavior, answering correctly, and participation. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 9, 199—206.
8.
Chapman, J.W., Tunmer, W.E., & Prochnow, J.E. (2000). Early reading-related skills and performance, reading self-concept, and the development of academic self-concept: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 703—708.
9.
Chen, X., Rubin, K.H., & Li, D. (1997). Relation between academic achievement and social adjustment: Evidence from Chinese children. Developmental Psychology, 33, 518—525.
10.
Cole, D.A., & Maxwell, S.E. (2003). Testing mediational models with longitudinal data: Questions and tips in the use of structural equation modeling. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 558—577.
11.
Colvin, G., Sugai, G., Good, R.H., & Lee, Y. (1997). Using active supervision and precorrection to improve transition behaviors in an elementary school. School Psychology Quarterly, 12, 344—363.
12.
Conroy, M.A., Asmus, J.M., Ladwig, C.N., Sellers, J., & Boyd, B. (2004). The snapshot assessment tool. Unpublished document.
13.
Conroy, M.A., & Stichter, J.P. (2003). The application of antecedents in the functional assessment process: Existing research, issues, and recommendations . Journal of Special Education, 37(1), 15—25.
14.
DuBois, D.L., & Silverthorn, N. (2004). Do deviant peer associations mediate the contributions of self-esteem to problem behavior during early adolescence: A 2-year longitudinal study. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 382—386.
15.
Emmer, E.T., & Stough, L.M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology, with implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36, 103—112.
Englert, C.S., & Sugai, G. (1981). Direct Instruction Observation System (DIOS). Lexington: University of Kentucky.
18.
Evertson, C. (1989). Improving elementary classroom management: A school-based training program for beginning the school year. Journal of Educational Research, 8, 82—90.
19.
Farmer, T.W., Quinn, M.M., Hussey, W., & Holohan, T. (2001). The development of disruptive behavior disorders and correlated constraints: Implications for intervention. Behavioral Disorders, 26, 117—130.
20.
Good, T., Grouws, D., & Ebmeier, H. (1983). Active mathematics teaching. New York: Longman.
21.
Good, T.L., & Brophy, J.E. (1972). Behavioral expression of teacher attitudes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 617—624.
22.
Greenbaum, P.E., Dedrick, R.F., Friedman, R.M., Kutash, K., Brown, E.C., Lardierh, S.P., et al. (1996). National adolescent and child treatment study (NACTS): Outcomes for children with serious emotional and behavioral disturbance. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders , 4, 130—146.
23.
Greenwood, C.R. (1991). Longitudinal analysis of time, engagement, and achievement in at-risk versus non-risk students. Exceptional Children, 57, 521—535.
24.
Greenwood, C.R., Carta, J.J., Kamps, D., & Arreaga-Mayer, C. (1990). Ecobehavioral analysis of classroom instruction. In S. R. Schroeder (Ed.), Ecobehavioral analysis and developmental disabilities: The twenty-first century (pp. 33—63). New York: Springer-Verlag.
25.
Greenwood, C.R., Delquardi, J.C., & Hall, R.V. (1984). Opportunity to respond and student academic performance . In W. L. Heward, T. E. Heron, D. S. Hill, & J. Trap-Porter (Eds.), Focus on behavior analysis in education (pp. 58—88). Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
26.
Gresham, F. (2003). Establishing the technical adequacy of functional behavioral assessment: Conceptual and measurement challenges. Behavioral Disorders, 28, 282—298.
Gunter, P.L., & Coutinho, M.J. (1997). Negative reinforcement in classrooms: What we're beginning to learn. Teacher Education and Special Education, 20, 249—264.
29.
Gunter, P.L., Coutinho, M.J., & Cade, T. (2002). Classroom factors linked with academic gains among students with emotional and behavioral problems. Preventing School Failure, 46, 126—132.
30.
Gunter, P.L., Jack, S.L., Shores, R.E., Carrell, D.E., & Flowers, J. (1993). Lag sequential analysis as a tool for functional analysis of student disruptive behavior in classrooms. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 1, 138—148.
31.
Hamre, B.K., & Pianta, R.C. (2001). Early teacher-child relationships and the trajectory of children's school outcomes through eighth grade. Child Development, 72, 625—638.
32.
Henricsson, L., & Rydell, A. (2004). Elementary school children with behavior problems: Teacher-child relations and self-perception. A prospective study. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 50(2), 111—138.
33.
Heward, W.L. (1994). Three “low tech” strategies for increasing the frequency of active student response during group instruction. In R. Gardner III, D. M. Sainato, J. O. Cooper, T. E. Heron, W. L. Heward, J. Eshleman, et al. (Eds.), Behavior analysis in education: Focus on measurably superior instruction (pp. 283—320). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole .
34.
Hinshaw, S.P. (1992). Academic underachievement, attention deficits, and aggression: Comorbidity and implications for intervention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,60, 893—903.
35.
Jones, V.F., & Jones, L.S. (2006). Comprehensive classroom management: Creating communities of support and solving problems (8th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
36.
Jorm, A.F., Share, D.L., Matthews, R., & Maclean, R. (1986). Behaviour problems in specific reading retarded and general reading backward children: A longitudinal study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 27, 33—43.
37.
Kameenui, E.J. (1995). Response to Deegan: Keep the curtain inside the tub. ReadingTeacher, 48, 700—703.
38.
Kamps, D.M., Kravits, T., Rauch, J., Kamps, J.L., & Chung, N. (2000). A prevention program for students with or at risk for ED: Moderating effects of variation in treatment and classroom structure . Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 8(3), 141—154.
Kraemer, H.C., Wilson, G.T., Fairburn, C.G., & Agras, W.S. (2002). Mediators and moderators of treatment effects in randomized clinical trials. Archives of General Psychiatry,59, 877—883.
42.
Ladd, G.W., & Burgess, K.B. (1999). Charting the relationship trajectories of aggressive, withdrawn, and aggressive/withdrawn children during early grade school. Child Development, 70, 919—929.
43.
Lago-Delello, E. (1998). Classroom dynamics and the development of serious emotional disturbance. Exceptional Children, 64, 479—492.
44.
Lane, K.L. (2004). Academic instruction and tutoring interventions for students with emotional and behavioral disorders: 1990 to the present . In R. B. Rutherford, M. M. Quinn, & S. Mathur (Eds.), Handbook of research in behavioral disorders (pp. 462—486). New York: Guilford .
45.
Lane, K.L., Wehby, J.H., & Cooley, C. (2006). Teacher expectations of students' classroom behavior across the grade span: Which social skills are necessary for success?Exceptional Children, 72, 153—167.
46.
Lewis, T., & Sugai, G. (1999). Effective behavior support: A systems approach to proactive schoolwide management. Focus onExceptional Children , 31, 1—24.
47.
Marzano, R.J. (2003). What works in schools: Translating research into action. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
48.
Masten, A., Coatsworth, J., Neemann, J., Gest, S., Tellegen, A., & Garmezy, N. (1995). The structure and coherence of competence from childhood through adolescence. Child Development, 66, 1635—1659.
49.
Mayer, G.R. (1999). Constructive discipline for school personnel. Education and Treatment of Children, 22, 36—54.
50.
McGee, R., Williams, S., Share, D., Anderson, J., & Silva, P. (1986). The relationship between specific reading retardation, general reading backwardness and behavioural problems in a large sample of Dunedin boys: A longitudinal study from five to eleven years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 27, 597—610.
51.
Miles, S.B., & Stipek, D. (2006). Contemporaneous and longitudinal associations between social behavior and literacy achievement in a sample of low-income elementary school children. Child Development, 77, 103—117.
52.
Morgan, P.L., Farkas, G., Tufis, P.A., & Sperling, R.A. (in press). Do reading and behavior problems cause each other?Journal of Learning Disabilities.
53.
Nelson, J.R., Benner, G.J., Lane, K., & Smith, B. (2004). Academic achievement of K—12 students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Exceptional Children,71, 59—73.
54.
Nelson, J.R., Roberts, M.L., Mathur, S.R., & Rutherford, R.B. (1999). Has public policy exceeded our knowledge base? A review of the functional behavioral assessment literature . Behavioral Disorders, 24, 169—179.
55.
Odom, S.L., Brantlinger, E., Gersten, R., Horner, R.H., Thompson, B., & Harris, K.R. (2005). Research in special education: Scientific methods and evidence-based practices. Exceptional Children, 71, 137—148.
56.
Powell, M. (1980). The Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study: A brief history of a major research project. In C. Denham & A. Lieberman (Eds.), Time to learn: A review of the Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study, conducted with funds provided by theNational Institute of Education (pp. 1—5). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education and National Institute of Education.
57.
Reid, R., Gonzalez, J.E., Nordness, P.D., Trout, A., & Epstein, M.H. (2004). A meta-analysis of the academic status of students with emotional/behavioral disturbance. The Journal of Special Education, 38, 130—143.
58.
Repp, A.C. (1994). Comments on functional analysis procedures for school-based behavior problems. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 409—411.
59.
Roberson, L., Woolsey, M.L., Seabrooks, J., & Williams, G. (2004). An ecobehavioral assessment of the teaching behaviors of teacher candidates during their special education internship experiences . Teacher Education and Special Education, 27, 264—275.
60.
Romberg, T. (1980). Salient features of the BTES framework of teacher behaviors. In C. Denham & A. Lieberman (Eds.), Time to learn: A review of the Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study, conducted with funds provided by theNational Institute of Education (pp. 73—93). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education and National Institute of Education.
61.
Rosenshine, B., & Stevens, R. (1986). Teaching functions. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research in teaching (3rd ed., pp. 376—391). New York: Macmillan.
62.
Schumm, J.S., & Vaughn, S. (1992). Planning for mainstreamed special education students: Perceptions of general classroom teachers. Exceptionality: A Research Journal,3, 81—98.
63.
Shores, R.E., Gunter, P.L., & Jack, S.L. (1993). Classroom management strategies: Are they setting events for coercion?Behavioral Disorders, 18, 92—102.
64.
Shores, R.E., Jack, S.L., Gunter, P.L., Ellis, D.N., DeBriere, T.J., & Wehby, J.H. (1993). Classroom interactions of children with behavior disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 1, 27—39.
65.
Sindelar, P.T., Smith, M.A., Harriman, N.E., Hale, R.L., & Wilson, R.J. (1986). Teacher effectiveness in special education programs . The Journal of Special Education, 20, 195—207.
66.
Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Macmillan.
67.
Skinner, C.H., Belfiore, P.J., Mace, H.W., Williams-Wilson, S., & Johns, G.A. (1997). Altering response topography to increase response efficiency and learning rates. School Psychology Quarterly,12, 54—64.
68.
Skinner, C.H., Ford, J.M., & Yunker, B.D. (1991). A comparison of instructional response requirements on the multiplication performance of behaviorally disordered students. Behavioral Disorders, 17, 56—65.
69.
Skinner, C.H., Smith, E.S., & McLean, J.E. (1994). The effects of intertrial interval duration on sight-word learning rates in children with behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 19, 98—107.
70.
Stichter, J.P. (2001). Functional analysis: The use of analogues in applied settings. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities , 16, 232—239.
71.
Stichter, J.P., Clarke, S., & Dunlap, G. (2004). An analysis of trends regarding proactive and ecologically valid interventions in applied research. Education and Treatment of Children, 27, 86—104.
72.
Stichter, J.P., & Conroy, M. (2005). Structural analysis in natural settings: A responsive functional assessment strategy. Journal of BehavioralEducation , 14, 19—34.
73.
Stichter, J.P., Hudson, S., & Sasso, G.M. (2005). The use of structural analysis to identify setting events in applied settings for students with emotional/behavioral disorders . Behavioral Disorders, 30, 401—418.
74.
Stichter, J.P., Lewis, T.J., Johnson, N., & Trussell, R. (2004). Toward a structural assessment: Analyzing the merits of an assessment tool for a student with E/BD. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 30(1), 25—40.
75.
Sugai, G., & Lewis, T. (1989). Teacher/Student Interaction Analysis. Teacher Education and Special Education, 12, 131—138.
76.
Sutherland, K.S., Alder, N., & Gunter, P.L. (2003). The effect of increased rates of opportunities to respond on the classroom behavior of students with emotional/behavioral disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 11, 239—248.
77.
Sutherland, K.S., & Morgan, P. (2003). Implications of transactional processes in classrooms for students with EBD. Preventing School Failure, 48, 32—37.
78.
Sutherland, K.S., & Oswald, D. (2005). The relationship between teacher and student behavior in classrooms for students with emotional and behavioral disorders: Transactional processes. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 14, 1—14.
79.
Sutherland, K.S., & Wehby, J.H. (2001). Exploring the relation between increased opportunities to respond to academic requests and the academic and behavioral outcomes of students with emotional and behavioral disorders: A review. Remedial and Special Education, 22, 113—121.
80.
Sutherland, K.S., Wehby, J.H., & Copeland, S.R. (2000). Effect of varying rates of behavior specific praise on the on-task behavior of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 8, 2—8, 26.
81.
Trzesniewski, K.H., Moffitt, T.E., Caspi, A., Taylor, A., & Maughan, B. (2006). Revisiting the association between reading achievement and antisocial behavior: New evidence of an environmental explanation from a twin study. Child Development, 77, 72—88.
82.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. ( 1999). Mental health: A report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Mental Health Services, National Institute of Health, National Institute of Mental Health.
83.
Van Acker, R., Grant, S.H., & Henry, D. (1996). Teacher and student behavior as a function of risk for aggression. Education and Treatment of Children, 19, 316—334.
84.
Walker, H., Colvin, G., & Ramsy, E. (1995). Antisocial behavior in school: Strategies and best practices. New York: Brooks/Cole .
85.
Wehby, J.H., Symons, F.J., Canale, J.A., & Go, F.J. (1998). Teaching practices in classrooms for students with emotional and behavioral disorders: Discrepancies between recommendations and observations. Behavioral Disorders, 24, 51—56.
86.
Wehby, J.H., Symons, F.J., & Shores, R.E. (1995). A descriptive analysis of aggressive behavior in classrooms for children with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 20, 87—105.
87.
Witt, J.C., VanDerHyeden, A.M., & Gilbertson, D. (2004). Troubleshooting behavioral interventions: A systematic process for finding and eliminating problems. School Psychology Review, 33, 363—383.
88.
Yoon, J.C. (2002). Three decades of sustained silent reading: A meta-analytic review of the effects of SSR on attitude toward reading. Reading Improvement, 39, 186—195.
