A model is presented for analyzing the components of instructional programs that are likely to affect generalization with severely handicapped students. The literature is summarized in terms of such issues as natural vs. artificial environments, materials, cues, and contingencies. The authors also review empirical evidence about the relative efficacy of serial vs. concurrent presentation, prompts vs. corrections, and various instructional arrangements. Suggestions are offered for implementation, and research needs are described for several components. Future research on the interactive effects of the components with each other and with the learners' characteristics are discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Albin, J.B.Some variables influencing the maintenance of acquired self-feeding behavior in profoundly retarded children. Mental Retardation , 1977, 15, 49-52.
Barry, K., Apolloni, T., & Cooke, T.P.Improving the personal hygiene of mildly retarded men in a community-based residential training program. Corrective and Social Psychiatry and Journal of Behavior Technology, Methods and Therapy, 1977 , 23, 65-68.
4.
Berler, E.S., Gross, A.M., & Drabman, R.S.Social skills training with children: Proceed with caution. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1982, 15, 41-54.
5.
Biberdorf, S.R., & Pear, J.J.Two-to-one versus one-to-one student-teacher ratios in the operant verbal training of retarded children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1977, 10, 506.
6.
Brown, L., Branston, M.B., Hamre-Nietupski, S., Pumpian, I., Certo, N., & Gruenewald, L.A strategy for developing chronological age appropriate and functional curricular content for severely handicapped adolescents and young adults. Journal of Special Education, 1979, 13(1), 81-90.
7.
Brown, L., Falvey, M., Vincent, L., Kaye, N., Johnson, F., Ferrara-Parrish, P., & Gruenewald, L.Strategies for generating comprehensive, longitudinal and chronological age appropriate individualized educational programs for adolescent and young adult severely handicapped students. Journal of Special Education, 1980, 14(2), 199-215.
8.
Brown, L., Nietupski, J., & Hamre-Nietupski, S.The criterion of ultimate functioning and public school services for severely handicapped students. In M. A. Thomas (Ed.), Hey, don't forget about me: Education's investment in the severely, profoundly and multiply handicapped. Reston, Va.: Council for Exceptional Children, 1976.
9.
Carr, E.G.Teaching autistic children to use sign language: Some research issues . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 1979, 9, 345-359.
10.
Coleman, R.S., Whitman, T.L., & Johnson, M.R.Suppression of self-stimulatory behavior of a profoundly retarded boy across staff and settings: An assessment of situational generalization . Behavior Therapy, 1979, 10, 266-280.
11.
Coon, M.E., Vogelsberg, R.T., & Williams, W.Effects of classroom public transportation instruction on generalization to the natural environment. Journal of the Association for the Severely Handicapped, 1981, 6(2), 46-53.
12.
Corte, H.W., Wolf, M.M., & Locke, B.J.A comparison of procedures for eliminating self-injurious behavior of retarded adolescents. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis , 1971, 4, 201-213.
13.
Csapo, M.Comparison of two prompting procedures to increase response fluency among severely handicapped learners. Journal of the Association for the Severely Handicapped, 1981, 6(1), 39-47.
14.
Cuvo, A.J., Leaf, R.B., & Borakove, C.S.Teaching janitorial skills to the mentally retarded: Acquisition, generalization, and maintenance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1978, 11, 345-355.
15.
Drabman, R.S., Hammer, D., & Rosenbaum, M.S.Assessing generalization in behavior modification with children: The generalization map. Behavioral Assessment , 1979, 1, 203-219.
16.
Eason, L.J., White, M.J., & Newsom, C.Generalized reduction of self-stimulatory behavior: An effect of teaching appropriate play to autistic chiildren. Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 1982, 2, 157-169.
17.
Falvey, M., Brown, L., Lyon, S., Baumgart, D., & Schroeder, J.Strategies for using cues and correction procedures. In W. Sailor, B. Wilcox, & L. Brown (Eds.), Methods of instruction for severely handicapped students. Baltimore : Paul H. Brookes, 1980.
18.
Favell, J.E., Favell, J.E., & McGimsey, J.F.Relative effectiveness and efficiency of group vs. individual training of severely retarded persons. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1978, 83, 104-109.
19.
Ferster, C.B., & Skinner, B.F.Schedules of reinforcement. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957.
20.
Foxx, R.M., Snyder, M.S., & Schroeder, F.A food satiation and oral hygiene punishment program to suppress chronic rumination by retarded persons. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorder , 1979, 9, 399-412.
21.
Freagon, S., & Rotatori, A.F.Comparing natural versus artificial environments in training self-care skills to group home residents. Journal of the Association of the Severely Handicapped, 1982, 7(3), 73-86.
22.
Gable, R.A., Hendrickson, J.M., & Strain, P.S.Assessment, modification, and generalization of social interaction among severely retarded, multi-handicapped children. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 1978, 13, 279-286.
23.
Garcia, E.The training and generalization of a conversational speech form in nonverbal retardates. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis , 1974, 7, 137-149.
24.
Halle, J.W., Marshall, A.M., & Spradlin, J.E.Time delay: A technique to increase language use and facilitate generalization in retarded children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1979, 12, 431-439.
25.
Handleman, J.S.Generalization by autistic-type children of verbal responses across settings . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1979 , 12, 273-282.
26.
Handleman, J.S., & Harris, S.L.Generalization from school to home with autistic children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 1980 , 10, 323-333.
27.
Haring, N., & Brown, L. (Eds.). Teaching the severely handicapped (Vol. I). New York: Grune & Stratton, 1976.
28.
Hill, J.W., Wehman, P., & Horst, G.Toward generalization of appropriate leisure and social behavior in severely handicapped youth: Pinball machine use. Journal of the Association for the Severely Handicapped, 1982, 6(4), 38-44.
29.
Holvoet, J., Guess, D., Mulligan, M., & Brown, F.The individualized curriculum sequencing model (II): A teaching strategy for severely handicapped students. Journal of the Association for the Severely Handicapped, 1980, 5(4), 337-351.
30.
Horner, R.D.Establishing use of crutches by a mentally retarded spina bifida child . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1971 , 4, 183-189.
31.
Hupp, S.C., & Mervis, C.B.Development of generalized concepts by severely handicapped students . Journal of the Association for the Severely Handicapped , 1981 , 6(1), 14-21.
32.
Kazdin, A.E., & Polster, R.Intermittent token reinforcement and response maintenance in extinction . Behavior Therapy, 1973, 4, 386-391.
33.
Koegel, R.L., & Rincover, A.Treatment of psychotic children in a classroom environment : I. Learning in a large group. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1974, 7, 45-59.
34.
Koegel, R.L., & Rincover, A.Research on the difference between generalization and maintenance in extra-therapy responding. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis , 1977, 10, 1-12.
35.
Koegel, R.L., Russo, D.C., & Rincover, A.Assessing and training teachers in the generalized use of behavior modification with autistic children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis , 1977, 10, 197-205.
36.
Liberty, K.A., Haring, N.G., & Martin, M.M.Teaching new skills to the severely handicapped. Journal of the Association for the Severely Handicapped, 1981 , 6(1), 5-13.
37.
Litt, M.D., & Schreibman, L.Stimulus-specific reinforcement in the acquisition of receptive levels by autistic children. Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 1981, 1, 171-186.
38.
Mansdorf, I.J.Training concepts through modeling: Using different instructional procedures with institutionalized mentally retarded adults. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1977, 82, 287-291.
39.
Marburg, C.C., Houston, B.K., & Holmes, D.S.Influence of multiple models on the behavior of institutionalized retarded children: Increased generalization to other models and other behaviors . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1976, 44, 514-519.
40.
Morris, R.J., & Dolker, M.Developing cooperative play in socially withdrawn retarded children . Mental Retardation, 1974, 12, 24-27.
41.
Neef, N.A., Iwata, B.A., & Page, T.J.Public transportation training: In vivo versus classroom instruction . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1978 , 11, 331-344.
42.
Nutter, D., & Reid, D.H.Teaching retarded women a clothing selection skill using community norms. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1978, 11, 475-487.
43.
Page, T.J., Iwata, B.A., & Neef, N.A.Teaching pedestrian skills to retarded persons : Generalization from the classroom to the natural environment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis , 1976, 9, 433-444.
44.
Panyan, M.C., & Hall, R.V.Effects of serial versus concurrent task sequencing on acquisition, maintenance, and generalization. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1978, 11, 67-74.
45.
Peterson, G.A., Austin, G.J., & Lang, R.P.Use of teacher prompts to increase social behavior: Generalization effects with severely and profoundly retarded adolescents. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1979, 84, 82-86.
46.
Reichle, J., Williams, W., Vogelsberg, T., & Williams, F.O.Curricula for the severely handicapped: Components and evaluation criteria. In B. Wilcox & R. York (Eds.), Quality education for the severely handicapped. Washington, D.C. : U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education, Division of Innovation and Development, 1980 .
47.
Richman, J.S., Sonderby, T., & Kahn, J.V.Prerequisite vs. in vivo acquisition of a self-feeding skill. Behavior Research and Theropy, 1980, 18, 327-332.
48.
Rollings, J.P., Baumeister, A.A., & Baumeister, A.A.The use of overcorrection procedures to eliminate the stereotyped behaviors of retarded individuals: An analysis of collateral behaviors and generalization of suppressive effects. Behavior Modification, 1977, 1, 29-46.
49.
Russo, D.C., & Koegel, R.L.A method for integrating an autistic child into a normal public school classroom . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1977 , 10, 579-590.
50.
Sailor, W., Wilcox, B., & Brown, L. (Eds.). Methods of instruction for severely handicapped students. Baltimore : Paul H. Brookes, 1980.
51.
Schroeder, G.L., & Baer, D.M.Effects of concurrent and serial training on generalized vocal imitation in retarded children. Developmental Psychology, 1972, 6, 293-301.
52.
Simic, J., & Bucher, B.Development of spontaneous manding in language deficient children . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1980 , 13, 523-528.
53.
Sloan, R.G., & Willis, J.H.Small-group training as an alternative to individual programs for profoundly retarded persons. American Journal of Mental Deficiency , 1978, 3, 283-288.
54.
Smeets, P.M., & Striefel, S.Training the generative usage of article-noun response in severely retarded males. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research, 1976, 20, 121-127.
55.
Stokes, T.F., & Baer, D.M.An implicit technology of generalization. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1977, 10, 349-367.
56.
Stokes, T.F., Baer, D.M., & Jackson, R.L.Programming the generalization of a greeting response in four retarded children . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1974 , 7, 599-610.
57.
Stolz, S.B., & Wolf, M.M.Visually discriminated behavior in a "blind" adolescent retardate . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1969 , 2, 65-77.
58.
van den Pol, R.A., Iwata, B.A., Ivancic, M.T., Page, T.J., Neef, N.A., & Whiteley, F.P.Teaching the handicapped to eat in public places: Acquisition, generalization, and maintenance of restaurant skills . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1981 , 14, 61-70.
59.
Waldo, L., Guess, D., & Flanagan, B.Ef fects of concurrent and serial training on receptive labelling by severely retarded individuals. Journal of the Association for the Severely Handicapped, 1982, 6(4), 56-65.
60.
Warren, S.F., Rogers-Warren, A., Baer, D., & Guess, D.Assessment and facilitation of language generalization. In W Sailor, B. Wilcox, & L. Brown (Eds.), Methods of instruction for severely handicapped students. Baltimore : Paul H. Brookes, 1980.
61.
Welch, S.J., & Pear, J.J.Generalization of naming responses to objects in the natural environment as a function of training stimulus modality with retarded children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1980, 13, 629-643.
62.
White, O.Adaptive performance of objectives : Form versus function. In W Sailor, B. Wilcox, & L. Brown (Eds.), Methods of instruction for severely handicapped students. Baltimore : Paul H. Brookes, 1980 .
63.
Williams, J.A., Koegel, R.L., & Egel, A.L.Response-reinforcer relationships and improved learning in autistic children . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1981 , 14, 53-60.
64.
Zane, T., Walls, R.T., & Thvedt, J.E.Prompting and fading guideline procedures : Their effect on chaining and whole task strategies. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded , 1981, 16, 125-135.
65.
Woods, T.S.Generality in the verbal tacting of autistic children as a function of "naturalness" in antecedent control. Paper presented at the Conference on Behavior Analysis in Education, Columbus, Ohio, September 1982.
