“Reality Shock” of Beginning Teachers? Changes in Teacher Candidates’ Emotional Exhaustion and Constructivist-Oriented Beliefs

Abstract

Beginning teachers often feel disillusioned and stressed during their first years of teaching. In the present study, we investigated changes in teacher candidates’ constructivist beliefs and emotional exhaustion. We assessed 163 German mathematics teacher candidates 3 times: at the beginning of, in the middle of, and after they completed the induction program. The results revealed a statistically significant decrease in constructivist beliefs and an inverted U-shaped change in emotional exhaustion with an increase at the beginning of the induction program and a decrease afterward. We also found that personal (i.e., math enjoyment) and social (i.e., instrumental support from peers and a constructivist-oriented mentor teacher) resources buffered the decrease in constructivist beliefs and the increase in emotional exhaustion.

Keywords

teacher beliefs emotional exhaustion beginning teachers preservice teacher education teacher induction

Teaching is regarded as a demanding profession (Chang, 2009; Schaefer, Long, & Clandinin, 2012; Vandenberghe & Huberman, 1999). Specifically, the transition from education to the world of work seems to be more challenging for teachers than in other professions (Tynjälä & Heikkinen, 2011). Empirical studies of beginning teachers often follow two research strands, one focusing on the emotional exhaustion and stress of beginning teachers (Chang, 2009) and the other focusing on teachers’ beliefs (Skott, 2015).

Longitudinally, an increase in novice teachers’ stress during the first months and years of teaching has been observed (for an overview, see Gold, 1996; for empirical studies, see Dicke et al., 2015; Fives, Hamman, & Olivarez, 2007; Hultell, Melin, & Gustavsson, 2013). Other research results have indicated that the idealistic and optimistic beliefs of beginning teachers may collide with the reality of the teaching profession (Cady, Meier, & Lubinski, 2006; Pearce & Morrison, 2011). However, little is known about individual differences between persons. For example, are the changes in beginning teachers’ emotional exhaustion and beliefs a general phenomenon? Which characteristics boost these changes in beginning teachers’ emotional exhaustion and beliefs, and which factors buffer the changes?

The present article is aimed at investigating changes in beginning teachers’ emotional exhaustion as well as in their constructivist beliefs about teaching during the mandatory induction program in Germany and their first years of teaching. In a sample of beginning mathematics teachers, we used a longitudinal design to examine, first, how teachers’ constructivist beliefs and emotional exhaustion change on average with their first practical experiences. Second, we asked which factors influence whether and how much emotional exhaustion and constructivist beliefs change.

Beginning Teachers’ Emotional Exhaustion

High rates of teacher attrition have often been reported, specifically among beginning teachers (for overviews, see Borman & Dowling, 2008; Guarino, Sanitbanez, & Daley, 2006; Schaefer et al., 2012). As a reason for this high attrition, the “reality shock” (Veenman, 1984) or “transition shock” (Corcoran, 1981) of beginning teachers is often cited as indicating the collapse of optimistic ideals and the harsh reality of everyday classroom teaching (e.g., Gavish & Friedman, 2010). This transition shock is often attributed to increasing levels of emotional exhaustion, defined as the feeling of being emotionally drained and depleted of emotional resources (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996). Empirical studies have found high levels of emotional exhaustion very early in teachers’ careers upon their first contact with complex classroom teaching (Chaplain, 2008; Fives et al., 2007; Goddard, O’Brien, & Goddard, 2006).

Cross-sectional studies comparing novice teachers and experienced teachers have revealed higher emotional exhaustion scores among beginning teachers in comparison with normative data from experienced teachers in the United States (Goddard & Goddard, 2006). By contrast, Klusmann, Kunter, Voss, and Baumert (2012) found only very small differences in emotional exhaustion levels between beginning teachers and experienced inservice teachers in Germany. Klassen and Chiu (2011) reported even significantly lower levels of job stress in novice teachers in Canada in comparison with experienced teachers. Such inconsistencies in study results may be attributable to differences in the samples (e.g., different countries and thus different educational systems; different experience levels of the groups of teachers under investigation). Furthermore, a disadvantage of cross-sectional designs is that life cycle and cohort effects are always confounded. It thus remains unclear whether any between-group differences identified in these studies can be attributed to experience or to cohort effects, such as historical, cultural, or time-related environmental events.

Some longitudinal studies have provided evidence for an increase in emotional exhaustion during teachers’ first months and years of teaching. For example, Fives and colleagues (2007) found that emotional exhaustion had already begun to decline during the student-teaching practicum. In a similar manner, Goddard and colleagues (2006) as well as Hultell and colleagues (2013) observed a significant increase in beginning teachers’ burnout symptoms. By contrast, Gavish and Friedman (2010) reported, in a sample of more than 400 beginning teachers, no significant increase over 1 year.

To support beginning teachers, several educational systems have established special teacher induction programs (Hobson, Ashby, Malderez, & Tomlinson, 2009; Howe, 2006; Huling-Austin, 1990). As part of most induction programs, experienced mentor teachers guide and support the teacher candidates (Howe, 2006; Ingersoll & Strong, 2011). Hobson and Ashby (2012) explicitly addressed how beginning teachers adapt during and after the induction phase. On the basis of annual interviews with beginning teachers, they found evidence of significant changes in teachers’ perceptions, after novice teachers enter the teaching profession, when they become fully responsible for their classes. They called this phenomenon the “reality aftershock” (p. 171).

Assumptions about changes in teachers’ emotional exhaustion have come from classical stage theories on the development of teachers. For instance, in one of the first life cycle models (Fuller & Bown, 1975), after a preteaching stage without specific concerns, severe concerns about survival tend to dominate the early-teaching stage (spanning the first year of teaching, that is, the reality shock). During subsequent stages, emotionally colored survival concerns decrease and more sophisticated thoughts about teaching tasks and pupils dominate. This classical model has gone through a number of changes (with different numbers of stages), and other stage models exist (e.g., Berliner, 2004; Huberman, 1993; for overviews, see Richardson & Placier, 2001; van Tartwijk, Zwart, & Wubbels, 2017). However, the models share a sequential order with a temporary “survival stage” (reality shock) that occurs when teachers enter the teaching profession. On the basis of these models, beginning teachers should recover (i.e., their emotional exhaustion should decrease) after the survival stage. However, longitudinal research investigating teachers over these time periods is rare (for an overview of older studies, see Wideen, Mayer-Smith, & Moon, 1998; for an exemplary empirical study, see Conway & Clark, 2003), and more studies on teachers’ potential recovery are needed. An indirect indication of recovery is given by the U-shaped pattern of change in teacher attrition (e.g., Gold, 1996; Guarino et al., 2006) in which attrition is high for novice teachers and lower for more experienced teachers with an increase again as retirement approaches (e.g., Ingersoll, 2001).

To sum up, the empirical evidence concerning beginning teachers’ emotional exhaustion as an indicator of the often claimed reality shock has been inconsistent. Reasons for the inconsistencies are different study designs (e.g., cross-sectional vs. longitudinal studies), different educational systems, or different phases under investigation (e.g., the practicum phase, induction programs, or different intervals after graduation). Most longitudinal studies have not covered time periods that were long enough to display teachers’ potential recovery as proposed by stage models of teachers’ development. Consequently, in the present study, we used a longitudinal design with three points of measurement that covered the induction phase and the post-induction phase.

Beliefs of Novice Teachers

Besides an increase in emotional exhaustion, changes in the beliefs of teachers have often been discussed as a second crucial indicator of the reality shock (specifically in the older research literature, for example, Cady et al., 2006; Veenman, 1984).

Beliefs are defined as the psychologically held understandings and assumptions about phenomena or objects of the world that are felt to be true and influence people’s interactions with the world (e.g., Fives & Buehl, 2012; Richardson, 1996; Skott, 2015). Different facets of teacher beliefs can be classified on the basis of their underlying theoretical orientations toward learning—the facets are more consistent either with constructivist theories or with transmissive/behaviorist theories (Handal, 2003). Constructivist beliefs are beliefs that learning is a process of understanding in which active engagement with problems and tasks leads to conceptual understanding, whereas, according to transmissive beliefs, teaching and learning is seen more as a one-way process of information transfer from teacher to student (Voss, Kleickmann, Kunter, & Hachfeld, 2013). Research has shown that teachers’ beliefs about learning and teaching are related to their instructional behavior and students’ learning (e.g., Dubberke, Kunter, McElvany, Brunner, & Baumert, 2008; Kleickmann, Tröbst, Jonen, Vehmeyer, & Möller, 2016; Staub & Stern, 2002). The conceptualization of and empirical research on teachers’ beliefs differ with regard to the question of how stable beliefs are (Fives & Buehl, 2012; Levin, 2015).

First, one strand of research has suggested that teachers’ beliefs are formed very early during their schooldays (for an overview, see, for example, Pajares, 1992; for an empirical study, see, for example, Haney & McArthur, 2002). Beliefs are thought to serve as filters for interpreting new experiences and, thus, the change in teachers’ beliefs is expected to be a long-term endeavor (Levin, 2015; Skott, 2015). Deep and systematic processing is needed to change teachers’ belief systems permanently (conceptual change approaches, for example, Gregoire, 2003; for empirical studies, see, for example, Decker, Kunter, & Voss, 2015; Kleickmann et al., 2016).

Second, the research literature on the reality shock has focused on changes in teachers’ beliefs in relation to their early teaching experiences. Characteristically, studies have found that beginning teachers enter teacher education programs with teacher-directed, transmissive beliefs (summarized by Wideen et al., 1998), whereas after university education, more constructivist or progressive beliefs tend to dominate (summarized by Veenman, 1984; see also Rimm-Kaufman, Storm, Sawyer, Pianta, & LaParo, 2006). After their first teaching experiences, however, beginning teachers again tend to hold more transmissive beliefs (e.g., J. Y. Hong, 2010).

On the basis of data from four measurement points and 12 participants, Cady et al. (2006) observed increasing constructivist-oriented beliefs over the course of the university program, a slight drop in beliefs during the novice-teacher phase, and an increase in beliefs with more teacher experience. However, the generalizability of the study was limited because of the small sample size (see So & Watkins, 2005, for another case study). In a sample of 98 science teachers, Luft et al. (2011) observed significant changes in teachers’ beliefs over a 2-year period. The beliefs of beginning teachers engaged in a science-specific induction program changed over the first year such that they became more reform-oriented and student-centered, whereas over the second year, they became more traditional and teacher-centered.

However, little is known about the sustainability of these changes: Are changes in teacher beliefs temporary or do they reflect actual developmental changes (Levin, 2015)? In the classical older literature, researchers assumed that the impact of formal teacher education was “washed out” by the reality of the teaching profession (e.g., Zeichner & Tabachnick, 1981). Belief systems were thought to be formed very early during the schooldays (as described above), and formal teacher education was not believed to have any lasting effects on belief systems. However, longitudinal empirical studies that have investigated the sustainability of the changes in teacher beliefs are rare (Levin, 2015).

Furthermore, the assumption that the formation of beliefs starts early during people’s schooldays (Fives & Buehl, 2012) implies that the historical setting of a study is highly relevant in the research on teacher beliefs. Constructivist views on learning and teaching are more accepted nowadays than in the past, and thus, findings from older studies may no longer be relevant today.

Therefore, we investigated changes in teacher candidates’ constructivist beliefs in a contemporary sample using a longitudinal design with three measurement points. Such a design is appropriate for investigating not only the changes that occur directly after teachers’ first practical experiences but also the sustainability of potential changes over the early years of teaching.

The Individual Differences Perspective

In most of the research, the trajectories were implicitly assumed to be general for all beginning teachers, and the research did not focus on interindividual differences in the changes. However, there is reason to believe that besides general trends, there might also be differences in how beginning teachers experience their early years of teaching. Besides general demands similar to all beginning teachers, teachers may face other demands that are specific to the school context or their students. Hultell and colleagues (2013) tracked beginning teachers over the first 3 years of their employment and differentiated seven burnout trajectories, including one cluster with a linear increase and another one with an inverted U-shaped pattern (an increase followed by a decrease). In addition, they found clusters with the opposite pattern (U-shaped) and a stable pattern.

In line with these findings, the Job Demands-Resources Model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007) proposes that burnout is related to low job resources (e.g., social support) and high job demands. Thus, differences in environmental resources could play a central role in the adaptation of beginning teachers. In addition to these differences in social resources, beginning teachers differ with regard to the personal resources they bring to the teaching profession. These differences in the personal resources may influence, first, how beginning teachers perceive the job demands (see transactional stress theory; Lazarus, 1991), and second, how they are able to cope with the demands.

Hence, different moderators of the development of beginning teachers may come into play: (a) personal resources such as motivational orientations and (b) social resources such as the support beginning teachers receive from significant others.

Personal Resources

Based on the assumption that belief systems are embedded in other cognitive, affective, and motivational systems (Schommer-Aikins, 2004), research has shown that people’s levels of beliefs are associated with their levels of motivational orientations (Blömeke & Kaiser, 2014; Decker et al., 2015; E. Hong, Hartzell, & Greene, 2009). For example, Bråten and Ferguson (2015) found that teachers’ beliefs in theory-based sources of knowledge were related to a higher level of teachers’ motivation to learn from theoretically oriented coursework. However, whether beginning teachers’ motivation also affects the development of their beliefs and thus moderates the changes in beginning teachers’ beliefs is an open question.

The same holds true for emotional exhaustion: Higher teacher motivation is associated with lower perceptions of emotional exhaustion (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007; Fernet, Guay, Senécal, & Austin, 2012; Hakanen, Bakker, & Schaufeli, 2006). However, little is known about the influence of teacher motivation on the changes in beginning teachers’ emotional exhaustion. In our study, we therefore investigated whether motivational orientations were related not only to the levels of constructivist orientations and emotional exhaustion of beginning teachers but also to the trajectories: Higher motivation should buffer a decrease in constructivist beliefs and an increase in emotional exhaustion among beginning teachers.

Social Resources

Collegial and mentor support are seen as crucial resources for preventing an increase in emotional exhaustion and early attrition among beginning teachers (Schaefer et al., 2012; Tynjälä & Heikkinen, 2011). Alhija and Fresko (2010) investigated beginning teachers’ satisfaction with their first year of teaching and found that support from mentors and assistance from other colleagues were most strongly related to beginning teachers’ satisfaction. Correspondingly, in different large samples (Greenglass, Burke, & Konarski, 1997; Ju, Lan, Li, Feng, & You, 2015; Van Droogenbroeck, Spruyt, & Vanroelen, 2014), positive social support from colleagues was associated with lower levels of teachers’ emotional exhaustion. In terms of the quality of the mentoring approach, previous research has suggested that constructivist-oriented mentoring is more helpful for beginning teachers than mentoring that follows more transmissive approaches to learning (e.g., Richter et al., 2013; Wang & Odell, 2002). However, less is known about the quality of the peer support that is helpful. Some studies have used combined measures of different aspects of peer support (Greenglass et al., 1997; Ju et al., 2015), whereas others have measured only a single aspect (e.g., emotional support, Eldor & Shoshani, 2016; Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2014) or measured collegial support on a more general level (e.g., receiving help from colleagues; Alhija & Fresko, 2010).

To sum up, in the present study, besides average development, we were interested in individual differences in the trajectories. We investigated whether and how personal resources (motivational orientations) and whether and which qualities of social support (from peers and the mentor teacher) would be found to moderate the changes.

The Present Study

The setting of our study was the mandatory induction program for beginning teachers in Germany. In Germany, formal teacher education involves two phases (Cortina & Thames, 2013). Phase 1 takes place at university, where students usually study two teaching subjects and attend general courses in psychology, pedagogy, or sociology. Phase 2, the induction phase, involves a compulsory 1.5- to 2-year student-teaching phase. During this phase, teacher candidates are allocated to placement schools where they gradually take on higher levels of teaching responsibilities. During the induction phase, senior mentor teachers are assigned to the teacher candidates to provide support. At the same time, the teacher candidates attend weekly courses, called seminars, on general principles and methods of teaching and on subject-specific methods of teaching at state-run teacher education institutes.

Using a longitudinal data set of German teacher candidates, we pursued the following research questions:

Research Question 1: How do beginning teachers’ emotional exhaustion and constructivist beliefs change over the induction phase?

We expected that beginning teachers’ emotional exhaustion and constructivist beliefs would change. However, on the basis of the research literature, we identified different assumptions about the shape of the changes:

On the one hand, we expected constructivist beliefs to decline (e.g., Luft et al., 2011) and emotional exhaustion to increase (e.g., Goddard et al., 2006) during the induction program right after beginning teachers begin teaching (e.g., Gavish & Friedman, 2010). For emotional exhaustion, we expected a reality shock with recovery (i.e., a decrease in emotional exhaustion with increasing teaching experience) on the basis of stage theories (e.g., Fuller & Bown, 1975) and on research on teacher attrition (Guarino et al., 2006). However, for constructivist beliefs, past research did not suggest any hypotheses with regard to the sustainability of the changes.

On the other hand, on the basis of the study by Hobson and Ashby (2012), we expected the significant changes to occur after the entry into the teaching profession when beginning teachers become fully responsible for their classes (reality aftershock) rather than after the first practical experiences as part of induction programs.

Hence, we asked whether and when the characteristic change patterns would occur, during the induction program (i.e., related to the practical experiences as part of the induction program) or after the induction program when beginning teachers are solely responsible.

Research Question 2: Which personal and social resources moderate the trajectories of constructivist beliefs and emotional exhaustion?

We investigated whether the personal resources and the support teacher candidates receive from significant others make a difference in the changes in teacher candidates’ emotional exhaustion and constructivist beliefs.

More precisely, we expected more highly motivated teacher candidates to show a smaller decrease in their constructivist beliefs (e.g., E. Hong et al., 2009) and a smaller increase in their emotional exhaustion.

We expected the following social resources to be related to the development of beginning teachers:

Although, in general, social support from peers has been negatively associated with an increase in emotional exhaustion (e.g., Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2014), we differentiated between an emotional component of peer support (e.g., encouraging each other) and an instrumental component (e.g., sharing materials or literature). Furthermore, we expected the mentor to play a crucial role in supporting beginning teachers (Fantilli & McDougall, 2009; Hobson et al., 2009) and expected that if the mentor–mentee interaction was characterized by a constructivist approach, this would buffer the increase in emotional exhaustion (Wang & Odell, 2002) and the decrease in constructivist beliefs.

Hence, with our multifaceted approach, we extended previous research and investigated two important outcome variables (i.e., teacher candidates’ emotional exhaustion and constructivist beliefs). We examined the average level of development in both outcome variables over 3 years—spanning not only the induction phase but also the post-induction phase to shed light on possible recovery effects. Furthermore, we included personal and social resources to predict interindividual differences in the changes. This extended focus on the reality shock may provide starting points for identifying ways to support beginning teachers.

Method

Study Design and Sample

The data used for the current analyses came from a project that was initiated to investigate the development of the professional competence of secondary school mathematics teacher candidates during the German induction phase (Kunter et al., 2013). It was a longitudinal study with teacher candidates assessed 3 times over 3 years. At the first measurement point, the teacher candidates were at the beginning of their first year of the induction phase. At the second measurement point, the teacher candidates were at the end of their first year. At the third measurement point, the teacher candidates had completed the induction phase and were fully responsible for their classes. During the German induction phase, teacher candidates gradually take on teaching responsibility: At the beginning, they watch other experienced teachers. Over the course of the first year of the induction phase, they begin to teach with increasing levels of responsibility under the guidance of a mentor teacher. Thus, at T1, teacher candidates had not taught lessons; at T2, they had just started to teach their first lessons; and at T3, they had started to teach lessons with full responsibility. A schematic overview of the German induction phase and the three points of measurement is given in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Schematic overview of the study design.

Overall, 163 mathematics teacher candidates participated at all three points of measurement. On average, they were 27.24 years old at T1 (see Table 1 for the sample description).

Table 1.

Sample Description.

	Sample
N	163
Female (T1)	70.55%
Age at T1	M = 27.24 (SD = 3.99)
Month after induction phase at T3	M = 10.49 (SD = 4.83)
Track at T1 (% academic track)^a	48.43%
Full-time job at T3	71.78%

All students entering a secondary level teacher education program in Germany can choose between two programs: an academic track, qualifying them to teach in the academic track, and a nonacademic track, qualifying them to teach at the lower secondary level schools (Cortina & Thames, 2013).

Measures

We assessed emotional exhaustion and constructivist beliefs at all three points of measurement. We used 10 items to measure constructivist beliefs (Voss et al., 2013, based on Fennema, Carpenter, & Loef, 1990). The participating teacher candidates indicated their agreement with statements such as “Students learn mathematics best by discovering their own ways to solve relatively simple problems” on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Teacher candidates’ emotional exhaustion was measured with the German adaption of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (Enzmann & Kleiber, 1989) with four 4-point Likert-type items ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). An example item is, “I often feel exhausted at work.”

We measured the personal and social resources as follows. Math enjoyment was measured with five items (e.g., “I am enthusiastic about the subject of mathematics”; 4-point Likert-type scale, T1, see Kunter et al., 2008). Support of the peers was assessed with two scales; one on instrumental support (e.g., “We share materials regularly in our group of teacher candidates”; five items, 6-point Likert-type scale) and the other on emotional support (e.g., “The other teacher candidates at the school encourage me when I get negative feedback”; four items, 6-point Likert-type scale, T2). The degree of constructivist-oriented interaction with mentor teachers was assessed with eight items (e.g., “My mentor helps me try out different teaching methods”; 6-point Likert-type scale, T2, see Richter et al., 2013). The Cronbach’s alphas of all scales are displayed in Table 2.

Table 2.

Descriptive Statistics.

	T1				T2				T3
	N	M	SD	α	N	M	SD	α	N	M	SD	α
Emotional exhaustion	163	2.00	0.57	.77	163	2.14	0.72	.82	163	1.96	0.62	.75
Constructivist beliefs	163	3.43	0.37	.79	163	3.37	0.40	.82	163	3.33	0.41	.80
Math enjoyment	163	2.99	0.61	.91	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Instrumental support peers	—	—	—	—	163	4.02	1.09	.83	—	—	—	—
Emotional support peers	—	—	—	—	163	5.37	0.80	.87	—	—	—	—
Constructivist-oriented mentoring	—	—	—	—	158	4.56	1.12	.82	—	—	—	—

Besides these variables on teacher candidates’ personal and social resources, we used several control variables: gender, track (academic vs. nonacademic), general cognitive abilities (assessed with the subtest figural analogies from a German adaption of the Cognitive Abilities Test, Heller & Perleth, 2000, 25 items, Cronbach’s α = .70), and highest parental score on the International Socio-Economic Index of Occupational Status (HISEI; Ganzeboom, De Graaf, Treiman, & De Leeuw, 1992).

Statistical Analyses

To address Research Question 1, repeated-measure ANOVAs were used to investigate the trajectories of emotional exhaustion and constructivist beliefs over the induction phase with the within-subject factor time (three points of measurement).

We uncovered significant main effects of time with a priori contrasts (Rosenthal, Rosnow, & Rubin, 2000) by computing a series of contrasts following, besides the linear trend, the assumption of either the reality-shock literature with an expected change at T2 (and a reversal or not after T2) or the reality aftershock assumption with an expected change at T3 (contrast weights are summarized in Table 3).

Table 3.

Weights for the a Priori Contrasts.

	Reality shock					Reality aftershock
		With reversal		Without reversal		Reality aftershock
Emotional exhaustion	No. 1	T1 = −1 T2 = 2 T3 = −1	No. 2	T1 = −2 T2 = 1 T3 = 1	No. 3	T1 = −1 T2 = −1 T3 = 2
Constructivist beliefs	No. 4	T1 = 1 T2 = −2 T3 = 1	No. 5	T1 = 2 T2 = −1 T3 = −1	No. 6	T1 = 1 T2 = 1 T3 = −2

In a second step, we controlled for gender, track, HISEI, and general cognitive abilities as covariates in repeated-measure ANCOVAs. We z-standardized all covariates.

To address Research Question 2, we additionally included the personal and social resources (also z-standardized) as covariates and also explored how each personal and social resource interacted with time.

Results

Descriptive Statistics

The descriptive statistics for the variables are presented in Table 2. Overall, the teacher candidates reported a rather low degree of emotional exhaustion (below the scale’s midpoint of 2.5 for all points of measurement) and rather high constructivist beliefs that were clearly above the midpoint of the scale. Also, the personal and social resources scales exceeded the midpoint of 3.5 (respectively 2.5 for math enjoyment).

Emotional exhaustion was significantly positively correlated across the three points of measurement (.37 to .52, see Table 4). The same pattern emerged for constructivist beliefs, which were also positively correlated across the points of measurements (.45 to .57). The constructivist beliefs and emotional exhaustion scales were only weakly intercorrelated with only one statistically significant negative correlation (constructivist beliefs at T3 and emotional exhaustion at T1). Instrumental and emotional peer support were positively associated (r = .46). All other intercorrelations of the potential moderators were small or medium in size.

Table 4.

Intercorrelations of the Scales.

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
1. Emotional exhaustion T1	1
2. Emotional exhaustion T2	.52*	1
3. Emotional exhaustion T3	.37*	.50*	1
4. Constructivist beliefs T1	−.10	−.09	−.06	1
5. Constructivist beliefs T2	−.13	−.05	.05	.57*	1
6. Constructivist beliefs T3	−.22*	−.04	−.15	.57*	.45*	1
7. Math enjoyment T1	−.22*	.02	−.11	−.00	.05	.23*	1
8. Instrumental support peers T2	.03	−.20*	−.04	.10	.17*	−.05	−.10	1
9. Emotional support peers T2	.02	.01	.09	.11	.14	.09	.01	.46*	1
10. Constructivist-oriented mentoring T2	−.09	−.30*	−.03	.12	.05	−.03	−.07	.12	.22*	1

p < .05.

Research Question 1: How Do Teacher Candidates’ Emotional Exhaustion and Constructivist Beliefs Change Over the Induction Phase?

The time effect for emotional exhaustion was statistically significant, F(2, 1) = 6.69, p < .05, η² = .07, with rather small effect sizes (see Table 5 for Cohen’s d for the pairwise comparisons of the three points of measurement). Controlling for gender, track, HISEI, and general cognitive abilities did not change this result, and none of the control variables significantly moderated the time effect. The significant a priori Contrast 1 indicated a quadratic trend with an increase in emotional exhaustion at T2 and a decrease after T2 (reality shock with reversal).

Table 5.

Effect Sizes for Pairwise Comparisons of the Mean Levels.

	T2-T1	T3-T2	T3-T1
Constructivist beliefs	−0.16	0.10	−0.26*
Emotional exhaustion	0.21*	−0.27*	0.08

Note. Cohen’s d is reported.

Significant in the Bonferroni post hoc test.

We also found a significant time effect for the constructivist beliefs, F(2, 1) = 5.65, p < .05, η² = .03. The effect sizes were rather small (see also Table 5) and were no longer statistically significant after the control variables were included. The a priori Contrast 5 was statistically significant, indicating a decrease after T2 without a later increase (reality shock without reversal).

Research Question 2: Which Personal and Social Resources Moderate the Trajectories of Constructivist Beliefs and Emotional Exhaustion?

To address Research Question 2, we added the personal and social resources as additional covariates in a repeated-measures ANCOVA. Table 6 provides an overview of the results of the ANCOVAs to test for the Time × Personal Resources and the Time × Social Resources interactions.

Table 6.

Results of the ANCOVAs.

	Personal resources			Social resources
	Math enjoyment			Instrumental support peers			Emotional support peers			Constructivist-oriented mentoring
	F	p	η²	F	p	η²	F	p	η²	F	p	η²
Constructivist beliefs
Time	4.10	<.05	.03	0.47	.63	.00	0.80	.45	.01	1.68	.19	.01
Time × Resource	3.63	<.05	.02	2.39	<.10	.02	0.09	.92	.00	1.55	.22	.01
Emotional exhaustion
Time	0.61	.54	.00	2.23	.11	.02	0.59	.56	.00	2.35	<.10	.02
Time × Resource	2.39	<.10	.02	3.69	<.05	.02	0.13	.89	.00	4.71	<.05	.03

Note. We controlled for gender, track (academic vs. nonacademic), general cognitive abilities, and International Socio-Economic Index of Occupational Status.

Personal resources

Math enjoyment

We found a significant main effect of time and a significant Time × Math Enjoyment interaction for constructivist beliefs. The interaction diagram (see Figure 2, 1A) indicated that constructivist beliefs declined only for teacher candidates with low levels of math enjoyment. For emotional exhaustion as the dependent variable, neither the main effect nor the interaction effect was statistically significant.

Figure 2.

Interaction effects.

Social resources

Instrumental support from peers

We found a statistically significant Time × Instrumental Support interaction, indicating that the increase in emotional exhaustion at T2 (when the teacher candidates had started to teach independently) was especially strong for teacher candidates who perceived low levels of instrumental support from their peers (Figure 2, 2B). A similar pattern was revealed for constructivist beliefs as the dependent variable (however, with control variables no longer statistically significant): Teacher candidates perceiving high levels of instrumental support from their peers held strong constructivist beliefs at T1 and T2, whereas the beliefs at T3 were very similar between teacher candidates with high and low levels of peer support (Figure 2, 2A).

Emotional support from peers

No significant effects emerged for constructivist beliefs or emotional exhaustion as dependent variables.

Constructivist-oriented mentoring

We found that a constructivist-oriented mentoring approach did not moderate the trajectory of constructivist beliefs, but it did moderate the trajectory of emotional exhaustion. The Time × Constructivist-Oriented Mentoring interaction was statistically significant, indicating that constructivist-oriented mentoring buffers symptoms of reality shock: Teacher candidates with a highly constructivist-oriented mentor did not show the typical increase in emotional exhaustion after they began to teach their first lessons (at T2). By contrast, teacher candidates with mentors who were not very constructivist-oriented showed an increase in emotional exhaustion at T2 (Figure 2, 4B).

In a last step, we added to the ANCOVA one outcome (measured at T1) as an additional covariate of the change in the other outcome. As already indicated by the small- to medium-sized correlations between emotional exhaustion and constructivist beliefs (see Table 4), we found no significant coefficients in the ANCOVAs for the additional covariate. Thus, emotional exhaustion was not a statistically significant moderator of the changes in constructivist beliefs and, vice versa, constructivist beliefs did not significantly moderate changes in emotional exhaustion.

Discussion

On average, we found evidence for some rather weak symptoms of the often-cited reality shock in our 3-year longitudinal study in a German sample of mathematics teacher candidates, but we also found substantial interindividual differences in the trajectories.

How Do Beginning Teachers’ Emotional Exhaustion and Constructivist Beliefs Change During the German Induction Phase?

In our sample, emotional exhaustion showed a statistically significant increase after teacher candidates started to teach independently during their induction phase, but it decreased with more experience. Hence, on average, we found evidence for the existence of the reality shock with a reversal as teaching experience increased. Thus, although emotional exhaustion increased during the first year of the induction phase, the teacher candidates, on average, recovered. However, the effect sizes (η² and Cohen’s d for the pairwise comparisons) were small.

Constructivist beliefs decreased when teacher candidates started to teach independently but did not increase again with additional teaching experience, thus supporting the “reality shock without reversal” assumption. However, the decrease reached statistical significance only when the background variables were not controlled for, and furthermore, the effect sizes were again very small.

These results support the assumption that the first independent teaching experience is a critical event for beginning teachers (Tynjälä & Heikkinen, 2011), even though the effects were small. It is interesting that our results indicated that this critical event affected beginning teachers’ occupational well-being only temporarily. On average, beginning teachers’ emotional exhaustion returned to its initial level after about only 2 years (see the nonsignificant difference between emotional exhaustion at T1 and T3 as shown in Table 5). Hence, in line with stage theories (e.g., Fuller & Bown, 1975), as these beginning teachers gained more experience, their occupational well-being recovered. However, a different pattern emerged for teachers’ constructivist beliefs. On average, beginning teachers’ constructivist beliefs did not change substantially; they merely decreased slightly during the induction phase after these teachers began to teach, supporting the assumption that teachers’ beliefs are relatively hard to change (Skott, 2015).

Is the Reality Shock a General Phenomenon?

As discussed, the observed changes in emotional exhaustion and constructivist beliefs were, on average, rather small. However, as an important extension of most past research, our results also showed interindividual differences in the trajectories: Depending on personal and social characteristics, the symptoms of the reality shock were either weaker or stronger.

As a motivational personal resource, math enjoyment was found to buffer the reality shock in constructivist beliefs but not in emotional exhaustion—constructivist beliefs declined only for teacher candidates with low levels of math enjoyment. Hence, teacher motivation was not only related to the levels of constructivist beliefs and emotional exhaustion (see intercorrelations), but it also moderated the changes in constructivist beliefs of beginning teachers. Thus, enjoyment of the subject one teaches seems to be an important resource that helps teachers master the early professional challenges, and it might be fruitful to think about how to boost this enjoyment early in teacher education. The average level of math enjoyment was rather high in our sample, and the high levels turned out to be a precious resource for the teacher candidates. For secondary school pupils, the effectiveness of several programs intended to foster motivation (e.g., in science, technology, engineering and mathematics [STEM] education) is well documented (e.g., Gaspard et al., 2015). Our results could provide starting points for similar programs for beginning teachers.

Furthermore, the social resources under investigation turned out to have the potential to prevent the increase in emotional exhaustion often found among teacher candidates. Collaboration between teachers has recently been advanced as a strategy for professional development and school improvement (Tynjälä & Heikkinen, 2011). Our study indicates that it may be worthwhile to distinguish between different facets of social support because only the instrumental support of peers (e.g., exchanging materials and literature) moderated changes in beginning teachers’ emotional exhaustion, but peers’ emotional support did not. This finding was corroborated by a recent study of 336 beginning teachers (Burke, Aubusson, Schuck, & Buchanan, 2015): About 45% of beginning teachers with the intention to leave reported that there was a lack of sharing of teaching resources with colleagues—a statistically significantly higher rate than reported by beginning teachers with the intention to remain. By contrast, some studies with experienced inservice teachers have also shown that emotional support from colleagues was related to teachers’ motivation and stress (Eldor & Shoshani, 2016; Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2014). Perhaps instrumental support is more important than emotional support among beginning teachers with little experience, but later, with more teaching experience, emotional support becomes more important.

We also found that a constructivist-oriented mentoring approach moderated the changes in emotional exhaustion, but it was not associated with the trajectories for constructivist beliefs. School mentors can play an important role in the adaptation process of beginning teachers (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011). Our results indicate that it is not the existence of a mentor teacher per se that is beneficial but a specific quality of the mentor–mentee interaction. Teacher candidates who reported that their mentor teacher embodied a highly constructivist mentoring approach did not show the typical increase in emotional exhaustion after they started to teach. In a similar manner, Evertson and Smithey (2000) demonstrated the effectiveness of a training program that was designed to increase the quality of mentoring, and a longitudinal field study with 150 preservice teachers indicated that poor mentoring quality could even hinder the professional growth of preservice teachers (Klassen & Durksen, 2014).

Altogether, we found evidence for the existence of interindividual differences in the intrapersonal change pattern. The development of beginning teachers’ constructivist beliefs was affected by their math enjoyment as a personal resource, whereas the development of emotional exhaustion was affected by (some of the investigated) social resources. However, overall, the effects were rather small, and a substantial proportion of the variance remained unexplained.

Strengths and Limitations of the Study

We systematically analyzed longitudinal changes in beginning teachers’ emotional exhaustion and constructivist beliefs over the course of 3 years. Many other studies have conducted cross-sectional comparisons of groups of teachers at different stages in their careers. However, the main disadvantages of cross-sectional designs are that life cycle and cohort effects are always confounded and that interindividual differences in changes cannot be considered. Hence, the most important strength of our study is that we relied on longitudinal data so that we were able to investigate true changes and interindividual differences in intraindividual changes. We covered 3 years of beginning teachers’ professionalization and, thus, we were able to investigate not only changes that occurred directly after teachers’ first practical experiences but also potential recovery effects that occurred later.

Furthermore, we implemented standardized and validated measurement instruments and followed a multifaceted approach to the study of teacher education (Bickmore & Bickmore, 2010). We investigated two outcome variables—constructivist beliefs as a cognitive outcome and emotional exhaustion as an affective outcome. The items we used to measure emotional exhaustion as well as constructivist beliefs have been validated in other studies (Dubberke et al., 2008; Klusmann et al., 2012; Staub & Stern, 2002). For instance, constructivist beliefs measured with the scale in our study were related to instructional quality from the student perspective and to students’ mathematics competence: Students who had teachers with stronger constructivist (and lower transmissive) beliefs reported a higher level of cognitive demand and constructive support and, mediated by these differences in instructional quality, showed greater learning gains than students who had teachers with weaker constructivist beliefs (Voss et al., 2013). Furthermore, we included different—personal and social—characteristics as the potential drivers of the changes. We found different trajectories that offered support for a recovery effect only for emotional exhaustion, for instance. Furthermore, we found that different factors moderated the trajectories: For instance, a constructivist-oriented mentoring approach was related only to changes in emotional exhaustion but not to changes in constructivist beliefs. Thus, with our integrated view, we were able to draw a more comprehensive picture of beginning teachers’ development and to derive practical implications by taking into account the effects of the different factors.

The previous empirical results for effects on teachers’ professionalization during induction programs have been limited (see the overview by Ingersoll & Strong, 2011). Hence, our longitudinal study with three points of measurement offers a substantial contribution to the state of research on the effectiveness of induction programs. Not only did we find support for the potential effectiveness of induction programs on average with regard to two important outcome variables, but we also systematically investigated personal and social resources as moderators of beginning teachers’ professional growth.

However, as a limitation, we relied on self-reported data. Thus, the social resources were not measured directly but from the perspective of the beginning teachers themselves. Therefore, social desirability may play a role even though anonymity was ensured. Further studies should investigate the social resources in more detail with alternative measures such as mentor or peer questionnaires. However, a study supported the validity of the self-report measure (Richter et al., 2013): Teacher candidates’ ratings of the mentoring approach (measured with the same measure implemented in our study) were related to their mentors’ beliefs about learning to teach, suggesting that mentee ratings are useful indicators of mentoring quality. As a second limitation, we relied on a German sample of mathematics teacher candidates. The German teacher education system, in which teacher candidates are gradually introduced to independent teaching in a 2-year practical phase, might not be comparable to other systems with different or no mentoring systems. We found evidence that the 2-year induction phase is effective and that the support system offered by the induction program has the potential to buffer the increase in emotional exhaustion usually experienced by beginning teachers. However, the restriction to mathematics teacher candidates in Germany limits the generalizability of the results, and our results need to be replicated in other samples. At this point, we can only draw conclusions about German secondary school teacher candidates with mathematics as one of their subjects.

Implications for Practice

Overall, our results suggest that (on average) the German induction program seems to be powerful in supporting beginning teachers’ professional development. Although there is a statistically significant increase in beginning teachers’ average levels of emotional exhaustion, this increase is rather small. Furthermore, our results indicate that, on average, beginning teachers recover, and their emotional exhaustion returns to its initial level.

The constituent elements (e.g., gradually increasing teaching responsibility, the guidance of a mentor teacher) of the German induction program are theoretically assumed to be crucial for beginning teachers’ professionalization (Gold, 1996). With our results, we contribute to empirically substantiating these assumptions.

Although the German induction phase is compulsory, its implementation differs between institutions (e.g., the preparation and the quality of the mentors). Our results indicate that some of these differences are systematically associated with changes in beginning teachers’ emotional exhaustion and constructivist beliefs. Beginning teachers with few social resources are more prone to an increase in emotional exhaustion than teacher candidates with more social resources. Our results indicate that the quality (and not the existence) of the interaction with and the support of significant others matters: A constructivist-oriented mentoring approach as well as instrumental (in contrast to emotional) support has the potential to buffer the increase in emotional exhaustion that is usually experienced by beginning teachers.

Thus, our results should inspire practical approaches to support beginning teachers more systematically. Our results suggest that a good starting point would be to foster constructivist-oriented mentoring approaches for beginning teachers and a collegial climate characterized by sharing materials and ideas for teaching with peers. In Germany, no statewide system for the selection and preparation of mentor teachers exists. Our results indicate that more systematically preparing mentor teachers has the potential to effectively support beginning teachers’ professionalization.

It is interesting that the personal resource we investigated (i.e., math enjoyment) was associated with changes in constructivist beliefs. Overall, our results supported the assumption that beginning teachers’ beliefs are relatively stable. However, for beginning teachers with low math enjoyment, constructivist beliefs decreased over time. Besides effective approaches to foster reflection and deep processing to change belief systems (e.g., Decker et al., 2015; Gill, Ashton, & Algina, 2004; Kleickmann et al., 2016), our results indicate that teacher motivation also contributes to preventing beginning teachers from becoming disillusioned after their first contact with the complex reality of the classroom.

In conclusion, the results of our study may inform both teacher educators and researchers investigating teacher education. First, in spite of the ubiquitous lamenting that there is a gap between theory and practice in teacher education (e.g., Korthagen, Loughran, & Russell, 2006), our study showed that, overall, teacher education—at least the German model with a lengthy induction program—seems to prepare teachers well for the transition into practice (e.g., as evidenced in our study by the only rather small increase in emotional exhaustion and the recovery from it). In addition, our results on individual differences in the trajectories indicate that general statements about beginning teachers’ adaptation to practice should be taken with a grain of salt, given that we found substantial differences between teacher candidates. Thus, finally, our findings on the resources that influence these trajectories may inspire both practitioners and researchers to think more about how these resources can be systematically fostered in different learning situations.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

Many thanks go to Joerg Wittwer for his feedback on previous versions of the article, to Jane Zagorski for proofreading the article so attentively, and to the students Bianca Wassmann and Marco Froehlin for their support.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The study reported herein was supported by the innovation fund from the Max-Planck Society 2008-2010. The professorship of Thamar Voss is sponsored by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research.

Author Biographies

Thamar Voss is an assistant professor for empirical research on schools and teaching at the Department of Education, University of Freiburg, Germany. Her research interests are (a) assessment, meaning, and promotion of teachers’ professional competence; (b) successful entry into the teaching profession; and (c) research on teaching quality and school development.

Mareike Kunter is a professor of educational psychology at the Department of Educational Psychology, Goethe University Frankfurt, Germany. Her research interests are (a) professional competence of teachers, (b) teacher career development, (c) classroom instruction, and (d) motivation at school.

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