Abstract
Academically gifted learners can both thrive and struggle in our music classrooms. This article offers a detailed approach to defining, recognizing, and meaningfully teaching gifted learners in the music classroom while providing differentiation ideas that can benefit all learners. In-depth discussion and examples of contracts, tiered instruction, and menu differentiation strategies are provided.
Keywords
How can music teachers best help their intellectually gifted students? Here are some ideas to consider. Myths abound about the nature of giftedness, largely because public schools have not really had the resources to fully and accurately identify the gifted and to understand their needs. A prevailing notion for many years in public education has been that these students can take care of themselves and learn a great deal on their own. Little has been left over to identify or support the gifted, despite federal and state mandates to do so.
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In 1988, the United States Congress passed the Jacob Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Act as part of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. 2 This act was most recently reauthorized through the Every Student Succeeds Act (2015) and includes programs that focus on “serving students traditionally underrepresented in gifted and talented programs, particularly economically disadvantaged, limited English proficient (LEP), and disabled students, to help reduce the serious gap in achievement among certain groups of students at the highest levels of achievement.” 3 This program, the only federal program dedicated to serving the needs of gifted learners, aims to fund innovative research, strategies, or projects that will enhance the opportunities for gifted and talented elementary and secondary students. Furthermore, this program has had tremendous variability in appropriations during the past seven years, ranging from no available funding in 2013 to $10,000,000 in funding in 2015. 4 As a point of comparison, the Javits Act was funded at $7.5 million, whereas $11. 5 billion was spent on children under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 2010. 5
Music class may be the first time [academically gifted] students have struggled with a task or encountered a school-related activity that did not come easily for them.
School districts are allowed to set their own benchmarks for gifted services and testing, but the baseline IQ range for academically gifted services is between 125 and 145. 6 The National Association for Gifted Children defines gifted individuals as those who “demonstrate outstanding levels of aptitude (defined as an exceptional ability to reason and learn) or competence (documented performance or achievement in the top 10% or rarer) in one or more domains. Domains include any structured area of activity with its own symbol system (e.g., mathematics, music, language) and/or set of sensorimotor skills (e.g., painting, dance, sports).” 7 This broad definition seems rather all-encompassing, yet many teachers may struggle with not only recognizing giftedness in their students but also teaching and reaching these students in a meaningful way. 8 Music educators, who often teach their students over a period of many years, may also find it challenging to recognize “academic giftedness” while focusing on musical “talent.” 9
In our experience working with academically gifted children, music class may be the first time these students have struggled with a task or encountered a school-related activity that did not come easily for them. For example, learning to play an instrument well takes time and patience, and frustration, shock, or anger can come with a lack of immediate results. Music educators must be clear that success in the music classroom comes with perseverance and practice and remain positive, encouraging, and supportive.
Because academic giftedness is minimally discussed in music education literature, coursework, professional development workshops, and textbooks on teaching children with exceptionalities, 10 information that focuses on recognizing, identifying, and meaningfully teaching gifted learners in the music classroom is beneficial and necessary.
The Academically Gifted Learner
Teachers who are unfamiliar with the needs of gifted students may perceive giftedness as a set of specific characteristics into which all academically gifted children fit, but giftedness exists on a wide spectrum, and each gifted student is a unique individual. In addition, teachers may struggle to differentiate between “gifted” students and students who are considered “bright.” 11 Whereas bright learners are those who are alert and quickly absorb information, gifted learners are those who observe fine detail and comfortably make inferences and connections that other students may not see. Table 1 provides a select list of characteristics comparing bright and gifted learners. 12 By understanding the many ways giftedness manifests itself in each student, the ability to recognize, differentiate, and properly identify and serve gifted students should improve.
General Comparison of Bright Versus Gifted Learners
Note. Adapted from Jane Szabzos, “Bright Child, Gifted Learner,” Gifted Child Quarterly. Accessed May 20, 2016, http://www.ode.state.or.us/teachlearn/specialty/tag/r5brightchild.pdf. Additional information on these comparisons can be found at http://www.creativitypost.com/education/the_bright_vs._gifted_comparison_a_distraction_from_what_matters.
The one thing that is generally thought to identify an academically gifted learner is the ability to excel in the classroom. The important word in this statement is generally. In classrooms where instruction and differentiation is occurring that is commensurate with the learner’s ability level, this statement will most likely hold true. Along with excelling in the classroom, our observations have substantiated that gifted learners are engaged in learning, asking questions, and exhibiting curiosity while being both mentally and physically active in the learning process. Mastery of a concept can occur in one or two repetitions rather than through repeated drilling. Additionally, gifted students seek creative solutions to problems and frequently manipulate information to invent new strategies for learning. Original ideas abound, and critical thinking soars.
When learning is replaced with typical school routines and a “one-size-fits-all” approach to curriculum and instruction, the pleasant and engaged gifted learner can rapidly morph into a disgruntled, unhappy, and disruptive student. Because these learners need very minimal repetition to master concepts, 13 insisting on repetitive drill exercises or repeated review of a concept already understood can lead to frustration, irritation, and outwardly negative reactions. Disturbing others, challenging authority, or impolitely correcting adults or peers can be manifestations of the bored or inappropriately challenged gifted student. These students may exhibit a know-it-all attitude, questioning the teacher and even refusing to work with other students. Left unchallenged and mismanaged, these students may actually become underachievers. Unfortunately, these behaviors are often misinterpreted and misunderstood, leading to conclusions that are far from correct! For a more complete list of the possible characteristics and behavior manifestations of academically gifted children that may apply to the music classroom, see Table 2. 14
Characteristics and Behavioral Considerations of Gifted Children
Source. James LoGiudice, David Mason, Mary Keller, and Bernie Miller, eds., Understanding and Challenging the Gifted: An Introduction for Teachers (Harrisburg, PA: PSEA/PAGE, 2009). https://www.psea.org/uploadedfiles/publications/professional_publications/booklets/pagegiftedbooklet.pdf, p. 8.
The presence of academically gifted students in a classroom can be a delightfully rewarding experience. These students have much to offer intellectually and creatively and can enhance the music classroom with their insightful thinking and unique approaches to problem solving. However, if misunderstood, they can be a serious challenge and cause a rather chaotic classroom. Differentiation, the “recognition of and commitment to plan for student differences,” 15 is the key to accomplishing a classroom environment where academically gifted students thrive and all students experience success.
Differentiated Techniques
Osborn stresses that one of the most noted characteristics of a gifted child is his or her “ease and speed” of maneuvering through and mastering academic skills. Further, she asserts that the more intellectually extreme a child is on the gifted spectrum, the more likely it is that the child will not respond well to a standardized curriculum. 16 Differentiation involves tailoring instruction to meet the individual needs of the child and can be utilized in content, process, product, or the learning environment. Differentiated instruction is based on the fact that students differ in their learning profiles. According to Carol Ann Tomlinson, a researcher in differentiated education, 17 “the use of ongoing assessment and flexible grouping makes this a successful approach to instruction.” 18 The key to a differentiated classroom is that all students are regularly offered choices and are matched with tasks compatible with their individual learner profiles, educational needs, and academic levels of performance. Differentiated classrooms are an instructional setting in which students are active learners, decision makers, and problem solvers; one where “covering information” takes a backseat to making meaning out of important ideas. These types of classrooms are more natural and effective than those in which students are served a one-size-fits-all curriculum and treated as passive recipients of information. 19
Teachers who want to provide a differentiated learning environment for their students can make use of Specifically Designed Instruction (SDI) techniques. These techniques, through which instruction is adapted to meet the unique needs of individual students, include (a) pretesting and compacting, (b) telescoping and individualized pacing, (c) independent study, (d) contracts, (e) tiered instruction, and (f) menus. We will discuss each of these techniques and provide in-depth descriptions of sample contracts, tiered instruction, and menu activities for the music classroom.
Pretesting and Compacting
Pretesting and compacting are potentially the most accessible forms of differentiation. Pretesting, which is used to determine how much of the curriculum a student has already mastered, need not be strictly a paper and pencil assessment and is an important practice for all differentiated teaching ideas. Performance assessment, observation, formative assessment, or oral inquiry can all be utilized to make this determination. After the student’s level of mastery has been determined, compacting can begin.
According to author and educational consultant Susan Winebrenner, 20 compacting allows students to draw their attention away from previously mastered material and focus on new material that is beyond the work of their peers. For example, students who have accomplished the activities on specific pages in a method book or in the musical goals that the choir is rehearsing may be encouraged to form small chamber ensembles in which they can apply their knowledge with more individualization and leadership potential. It is important to note that these activities can be of the same subject matter as the class is studying or a different subject altogether. This determination can be made by the teacher or the teacher and student together. This decision is often driven by the depth of mastery of the subject and the interest areas of the student. One thing for certain is that the activities should never be drill or review of the skills or content of the areas already mastered. 21
A common question is how the student is assessed. The mastery score is the one used for reporting purposes. Challenging alternate activities are not necessarily graded, nor should they be seen as punishment. The student, however, is held accountable through a verbal and/or written outline of expectations or a differentiated grading plan conducive to the skills of the student and the mutual expectations of the assignment(s). In addition, teachers should be careful to provide enrichment activities that are engaging rather than overwhelming so that gifted students are intrigued by the activity rather than seeking a way to avoid it! Not all students will be intrinsically motivated to complete every task every time, so it is our job as educators to provide a balance in the motivational strategies we use. 22
Telescoping and Individualized Pacing
Telescoping differs from compacting in that it shortens the time spent on the curriculum. If a teacher plans that a unit will take four weeks to cover and a gifted student can master it in two, the time saved can be used for alternate activities. In telescoping, the activities chosen are enrichment activities of the subject being studied. Activities that require delving into the subject on a deeper level and applying this newfound knowledge are examples of why telescoping is such a valuable instructional tool. Independent study fits nicely into the realm of telescoping activities as it allows for individualized pacing and study that is commensurate with the student’s intellectual ability as well as his or her speed of learning. Once again, it should be noted that the baseline grading mechanism needs to be of the standard curriculum and not the enrichment activities or independent study so that academically gifted students do not feign ignorance in an attempt to avoid “punishment.” Setting attainable goals for the enrichment activity—goals that stretch the students without setting them up for failure—is the key.
Independent Study
Independent studies provide excellent opportunities for students to pursue areas of personal interest or individually investigate course topics. They are especially useful with students who are competent, self-directed, and independent. Components of an independent study program can include identifying a topic of interest, using decision-making strategies, learning research and time management skills, designing evaluations of the process and product, demonstrating the product, and documenting results. 23
Listening activities are perfect opportunities for differentiation.
Independent studies help the student move from being teacher-directed to student-directed. With teacher support and coaching, the student learns how to decide on a goal, develop a plan of action and follow it through, and monitor the process. Students take part in developing criteria for evaluation and begin to work with the teacher as a partner. This gives the student ownership of the project and therefore helps make it important and meaningful. During this partnership and process, the student is held accountable to report and document his or her progress while working toward completion of the independent study. Regular “check-ins” or conferencing with the teacher are useful and necessary to ensure successful accomplishment of the goal. Independent studies can easily be designed for ensemble and classroom-based music courses, or they could be used for individual students who are seeking additional experiences in courses that may not be offered at their school.
Contracts
Contracts are another form of independent study that, depending on the age and maturity of the student, are sometimes developed exclusively by the teacher but can also use input from the student. Tomlinson emphasizes that a contract is a “negotiated agreement between teacher and student that gives students some freedom in acquiring skills and understandings that a teacher deems important at a given time.” 24 The older and more mature the student is, the better it is to include him or her in the decision-making process and the creation of the contract. By assuming some degree of control over the contract, students become more vested in the process and eventual outcome, and they tend to apply themselves more enthusiastically during the activity.
Contracts provide the student with an outline of expectations. The activities included in the contract can complement the current curriculum or be utilized as a “mini professor/expert” project on a topic of the student’s choice. Again, the teacher’s role is one of facilitator, and the student assumes more independence. Contracts work best when the time allotment is over a longer period of time, perhaps several days or even over the course of a unit of study.
In the music classroom, contracts can work very well in situations of instrumental practice and performance (i.e., band or orchestra lessons or keyboard or guitar in the general music classroom). Because they allow both student and teacher input in their design and implementation, contracts allow students to feel ownership in their educational process and evaluation, and with consistent communication of expectations, children can work independently (or in small groups) to fulfill aspects of their contracts.
See Figure 1 for an example of a contract for children who “test out” of certain objectives in their clarinet lesson group, such as performing scales and/or exercises with accurate technique, rhythms, and pitches. Though this contract emphasizes musical listening and the creation of a playlist, other contract options could easily include additional performance opportunities involving practice plans and self-evaluation, performing scales or other technical passages at a faster tempo or with varying articulations, or a research presentation on a famous clarinetist. As teachers, we ultimately decide the appropriate activity “substitution” because we know the ability levels of all our students and how much time they may require on certain tasks. Each contract has a variety of steps, and it is very important that students understand all aspects of every contract when making their decision on which contract to use.
Contracts in an Ensemble Clarinet Lesson Group: Playlist Option
Tiered Instruction
Tiered assignments allow for students at varying ability levels to work on the same content. 25 Sousa emphasizes that tiered instruction offers “choices for accomplishing a learning objective at different levels of complexity,” 26 and Tomlinson suggests that the various levels of tiering can be created by varying the material students use, developing a range of learning applications, or allowing students to express learning in a variety of ways or products. 27 That said, it is crucial for teachers to remember that additional tiers that engage critical thinking are not to be seen as punishment. In other words, students are not assessed at a harder level or given “extra work.” 28
In general music and ensemble classrooms, listening journals provide an excellent opportunity for tiered instruction because they encourage listening and higher-level thinking skills and can be used through students’ personal journals, allowing for differentiation and privacy. Students need not know what each tier “name” means or even if there are tier names at all. Listening activities can vary in length from five minutes of class time to entire units where students are encouraged to begin with basic listening concepts and then explore their own areas of composition, improvisation, or other artistic creation opportunities. In other words, listening activities are perfect opportunities for differentiation.
If the objective of one listening activity is for students to be able to answer questions relating to elements of music (timbre, rhythm, melody, harmony, dynamics, form, etc.), students in the basic tier would answer guiding questions about the specific elements that the piece addresses and/or specific questions related to historical/cultural musical aspects that have been discussed in class and applied in a variety of contexts. For example, questions such as “What instruments do you hear?” or “What three rhythms do you hear throughout this excerpt?” allow the student to focus on concrete ideas that reinforce or assess classroom listening objectives. Students who are more advanced as indicated via pretesting proficiency would be asked a more advanced question. Answering more descriptive statements such as “Describe the melody and dynamic structure of this piece using one adjective, verb, noun, and/or adverb” allows students with stronger conceptual understanding to apply this knowledge more creatively. Finally, students who are the most advanced in this particular area—those who can fluently discuss and apply their knowledge of musical elements—would be asked a more enriched criteria example such as, “If you had to use this music as the background for a movie, what kind of movie would it be and why? What would be happening in the scene that includes this music?” This type of questioning obviously utilizes the information that is the objective for all children in the room, yet it allows a more creative and unique approach to the application of that knowledge. See Figure 2 for an additional example of tiered instruction in a music listening journal.
Tiered Instruction in a Music Listening Journal
Menus
Menus differ from contracts in that they allow for an alternative activity in a shorter (or varied) amount of time. Menus lend themselves well to class reviews and give the student more freedom of choice. When using a menu, the student and teacher work together to choose from a variety of activities that appeal to the student and satisfy the desire to learn rather than completing specific activities set forth in a contract. Menus therefore offer more flexibility and independence to the learner. Menus are excellent for students who are responsible and able to make appropriate and expeditious choices when given this freedom. In some cases, the menu choices can be entirely the student’s. 29
Menus can be used in stations or centers in the music classroom, and there can be multiple levels—or tiers—to each station activity. As with all differentiated instruction, pretesting to find out what students already know will determine which levels the students will complete. As the teacher, you will mark the appropriate boxes for each child to complete on their menu, noting that there can be reteach, review, and extension activities built in for all children. In essence, menus are like maps that guide students through a variety of choices and opportunities, with levels one and two serving as the assessment standards and levels three and four serving as extension/enrichment activities.
The time we invest in differentiating instruction is time invested in the futures of our students.
A specific example of a musical menu could involve a review activity of four rhythm stations where students are to accurately read, notate, and organize according to appropriate meter a variety of rhythmic patterns including quarter, half, whole, and eighth notes and rests. Station 1, meter organization, could involve using rhythm manipulatives 30 to create four measures of rhythm in the assigned meter. Students would need to utilize bar lines appropriately and draw their rhythmic composition on paper before leaving the station. At Station 2, aural dictation, students would utilize headphones and an “aural dictation” playlist to notate rhythms that they hear performed. Students could use standard or iconic notation as necessary, and the number of repetitions of each example can be varied. Station 3, rhythm reading, includes writing the appropriate symbols, beats, and/or counts for an assigned rhythm. At Station 4, composing and notating, students follow directions to put melody and rhythm on provided manuscript paper. See Figure 3 for a detailed description of Stations 1 and 4 as well as an example of a rhythm menu displaying level identifiers for all four stations.
Musical Menu Rhythm Stations
Musical Menu Activity Sheet
Ideas for further extension in a rhythmic menu activity could include an aural discrimination station where rhythm examples are performed with too many (or not enough) beats in a measure and students are asked to identify and fix the problem using technology apps for a variety of additional activities. Students might discuss a composer’s use of rhythm in various works. Students could also listen to and analyze rhythmic structure in music from various cultures or use the rhythmic compositions from Station 1 to create a whole class rhythmic composition.
Coda
According to a 2012 report by psychologist Scott B. Kaufman, forty-eight of the fifty United States have established a definition for giftedness. Of those definitions, forty-five states include intelligence as a category of giftedness, thirty-nine include high achievement, and twenty-seven include creativity. 31 The National Association for Gifted Children maintains a “State of the States in Gifted Education” report that provides specific information on the number of identified gifted children in each state, the state funding for gifted and talented education, and the policies governing the education of gifted children. 32 Great discrepancy exists in the amount of state funding provided to gifted children, the mandates for identifying and serving gifted students, and the training required for general classroom teachers and those who specialize in gifted education.
Differentiating techniques are not set in stone, yet many of the professional development opportunities in this area are either not available to music teachers or do not address the specificities of the music classroom. Specifically, designed instruction ideas are only limited by the imagination and creativity of the teacher. As with all differentiated instruction techniques, additional preparation work is required. However, it is crucial to remember that the time we invest in differentiating instruction is time invested in the futures of our students. As educators, it is our legal and ethical responsibility to honor the uniqueness of each child and focus on what each student needs to be his or her very best. Gifted children come to our classroom and ensembles every day with their own skills and needs. We must not only embrace their gifts but find ways to make them the best people—and musicians—possible.