Learning Together: The Instinct to Do Good and Peer-Assisted Strategies That Work

Abstract

Children have a natural proclivity to teach, help, cooperate, and empathize with others, and these interactions can have positive benefits for children’s emotional, social, and cognitive development. This article is about ways music teachers can design peer-assisted music learning activities that will benefit everyone in the class and ultimately contribute to creating a classroom culture of inclusion.

Keywords

culture of inclusion inclusive music classrooms inclusive peer interaction strategies learning in small groups learning with partners peer-assisted learning social and emotional development strategies

Peer-assisted learning nurtures the human capacity to cooperate, help, and teach, all of which lead to a culture of inclusion and productive, joyful learning.

Before any of us thought of pursuing a career in teaching, we were teachers—remember? Remember how we took care to show a younger sibling, a cousin, or a neighborhood child how to stack blocks, connect dots to reveal an animal picture, make associations of words and pictures of objects, imitate playing simple melodies on the piano, and catch a ball? Years passed, and tasks changed, but as adolescents and college students, we continued to teach and work with classmates. We helped friends with homework and gave feedback to classmates in sectionals as we all tackled trouble spots in our music. Remember?

Many adults in our lives described us as “born teachers,” as “helpful,” “cooperative,” “kind,” and even “well-behaved” children (well, most of us, that is). Significant adults helped shape the many traits and skills they observed and admired in us, but as very young children, we really did have a natural proclivity to teach, help, cooperate, and empathize—as do all young children.

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What Research Shows

A substantive body of research with infants and very young children supports the idea that humans have a natural inclination to act altruistically and that they will engage in prosocial behaviors (behaviors that promote positive social interactions), seemingly motivated out of concern for the welfare of others.¹ Research that reveals intrinsically motivated prosocial behaviors in children has relevance for any discussion about peer interactions. For background, we summarize a few findings from this fascinating research.² Age and individual differences are observed in children’s behaviors, but most young children are likely to do the following:

Show concern for the welfare and plight of others . When infants observe adults or other children they perceive to be in pain or distress, their facial expressions show sadness—brows furrow, lips pout—and they will even try to physically reach out to comfort the individual.

Increase cooperation and helpfulness after engaging in synchronous activities with others . Humans have a propensity to align movements to the beat of music, and moving in synchrony has been shown to be a social experience that fosters group cohesion and increase cooperation. Children who engage in synchronous movements (e.g., singing and moving together) are more likely to spontaneously help each other and work cooperatively to solve a task. These prosocial behaviors are also seen in infants who are bounced to the beat of music while observing adults who either bounce in sync or out of sync with them. Infants are spontaneously more helpful toward adults who move with them in sync.

Cooperate with peers on simple tasks and share resources more equally with others if they result from collaborative efforts . When children are given rewards (e.g., toys) and one (the “lucky” child) has more, a child who has more rewards is more likely to share with another child with less when they act as partners on a task to earn the rewards.

The instinct to cooperate, help, and teach are complex characteristics of human behavior that have evolved via genetics, cultures, and historical and personal events. Although early cultures evolved to be cooperative, peaceful groups that worked with other groups for the greater good, this rosy situation did not last. Eventually, numerous environmental factors led some groups to collaborate—but in acts of deception and aggression to achieve goals for their group members only.

Theories, research, and everyday observations overwhelmingly show that behaviors of individuals are closely tied to others in the group.³ Music teachers are well aware of the influences individual children in groups can have on other group members. Consider, for example, the many different types of actions of groups of students in the classrooms and hallways of the same school and in school-sponsored events (e.g., sports and music competitions).

Music teachers can nurture children’s prosocial tendencies in ways that will lead to successful music learning outcomes for everyone in the class. This article describes the importance of structuring positive, productive peer interactions among children from diverse populations—students who vary considerably in their capabilities, interests, and levels of motivation. Specifically, it’s about ways teachers can design and implement partner and small-group learning activities that include children with disabilities (including those with significant disabilities) with typically developing classmates. Ultimately, these interactions will benefit all students—both typically developing children and those with disabilities—and contribute to creating a classroom culture of inclusion.⁴

Peer-Assisted Learning

Academic success is closely tied to the social and emotional well-being of children, and children with prosocial skills are more likely to have academic success in school and experience positive outcomes in their adult lives.⁵ Specific to social and academic learning, a wealth of research in general and special education tells us that students with and without disabilities benefit academically and socially when they interact in learning activities with a partner or in small groups. Teachers and researchers refer to this type of learning as peer-assisted learning (PAL). A variety of types (e.g., cooperative learning, peer tutoring), each with its own nuances, can be found in the pedagogical and research literature.

The effects of PAL strategies have been examined extensively.⁶ Statistical meta-analyses of results from a substantial number of PAL studies (all types) show positive academic learning outcomes, particularly for those children defined as vulnerable (e.g., at risk, with disabilities). Additional social benefits are shown for students who are not as popular in their schools; over time, they are viewed more favorably. Furthermore, along with social and academic benefits for all students, students who teach each other and learn in small peer groups are more likely to transfer their learning to new situations.

In music research, the positive effects of structured peer interactions have been studied only rarely, particularly the effects of interactions of children with and without disabilities.⁷ However, the vast amount of knowledge on this topic from research and pedagogical literature in other disciplines is applicable to teaching practices in music classrooms and rehearsal halls. In the next section, we describe applications for partners and small groups and offer specific recommendations that apply to both. Almost all the recommendations are grounded in research (see the Notes section at the end of this article), although we also include ideas that come from excellent teachers at all levels and our own experiences as teachers, therapists, and researchers. We conclude with a few scenarios of real children and teachers in inclusive music settings.

PAL for Partners

Quick and Easy: Think, Pair, Share

One of the most common misconceptions about setting up peer-assisted learning activities is that they take a lot of time for planning and implementation. This is not the case for a strategy called “think, pair, share,” or TPS, as it is called in the pedagogical literature. In this strategy, students are prompted to think about a specific question or problem, pair up, and share their thoughts. These partner activities can be implemented quickly and can therefore occur frequently during a single class session. They are effective across a variety of grade levels and music education settings and have been shown to increase both academic and social outcomes. TPS is useful for students to review material, make quick musical decisions about a piece, or practice a difficult passage with a stand partner. Here are some strategies and recommendations:

Let students move around the classroom and choose a partner; choices for shorter activities aren’t as important as those for longer activities.

Movement in classrooms can be cumbersome because of chairs, stands, and instruments. Give stand partners opportunities to talk with other classmates who may be on either side, in back, or in front of them.

Create a routine. Many teachers have rules (e.g., face each other, take turns talking, and everyone contributes) to ensure a successful experience for partners. Develop a signal to bring the activity to a close (e.g., flick lights, play or sing a music cue, use clapping or solfège echo singing).

Reciprocal Peer Tutoring

Most teachers are familiar with the concept of peer tutoring, where one child teaches another child of the same age or often a younger child. A variation of peer tutoring is reciprocal peer tutoring (RPT), and as the name suggests, partners take turns in the role of the tutor and tutee. This type of partner work is more involved and obviously requires more time than TPS, but it can be an excellent way for students to review, practice, and transfer skills and knowledge taught by the teacher. Here are some strategies and recommendations:

Set up partners to tutor each other in or outside class (outside may be a possibility for older students).

Choose partners you have observed working well together. It is important that students learn when and how to give and receive feedback as well as how to respond to each other in ways that are respectful, constructive, and nurturing.

Tasks may be identical for both students but can vary with the use of different music or materials. For example, students in ensembles who are working to play or sing particular rhythms precisely can take turns performing them for each other. Practicing the same rhythms with numerous examples will increase the likelihood that students will transfer their learning. In some cases, students may teach something entirely new to each other.

For general music classes, partners can rotate through several stations to complete a variety of tasks, such as using flash cards to review music-reading skills or instruments and iPads to compose melodies and rhythms with paper and white boards for notation.

As appropriate, the “tutor” should offer praise, suggestions, and corrections before switching roles. This is especially helpful in music classrooms when students have opportunities to listen to their partner play or sing something from their ensemble literature and practice detecting errors as they would during their own practicing. By switching roles, students also learn that all classmates can contribute and act as tutors. Some students, particularly those who may feel marginalized, will benefit from serving as a tutor in a context where they feel safe and successful—a context selected carefully by the teacher.

Teach students when and how to help each other. Redirect well-intended typical students who over-help or hover. Students should ask or offer before helping a classmate.

PAL for Small Groups

Cooperative Learning and Collaborative Reasoning

Cooperative learning was one of the earliest developed peer-assisted learning strategies. Collaborative reasoning is a more recent model that is commonly used in science classrooms but is applicable to music classrooms as well. These two models have much in common.

In both structures, students are presented with a problem or task and given time to come up with a variety of solutions. In cooperative learning, students work the entire time as a group to arrive at a single product/answer. In collaborative reasoning, after the designated amount of time in a small group, students work individually on their solutions. As examples in music settings, small groups could discuss a variety of ways to practice a new piece of music or tackle sight-reading, try out ideas individually (practicing at home or at school) or as a group, and then discuss (play/sing) their solutions with group members and their teacher. With appropriate grade-level materials and tasks, teachers often structure groups where students create improvisations (create plans for who plays what, when, and for how long) and then perform for other groups (at the teacher’s discretion). Here are some strategies/recommendations:

Create groups of six students with no more than one student with a disability in each group. Match students who can work well together and avoid conflict.

The tasks assigned to groups and individual members are as important as group membership. Consider individual strengths and different ways for students to be successful, respond (e.g., talking, writing, moving, playing, and singing), and contribute to the final group product. Group members should communicate with and understand the communications of their classmates who use forms of alternative and augmentative communication.

Thoughts about Peer Mentoring

In peer mentoring, students are assigned to a partner or group for a longer period, possibly even the entire school year. Much of the success of mentoring is seen when teachers foster a classroom environment of inclusion and define students’ relationships with and responsibilities for their classmates not for one activity only but across the school year. When mentoring is a part of the culture of a music program, it is present in every class, every year. Many teachers find ways to structure informal peer mentoring opportunities where students can find commonalities in their experiences, preferences, and activities related to music and other activities outside of school.

Peer mentoring can be particularly effective with older students in secondary music ensembles. Students serve as mentors for each other in their own sections and alternately can be paired with members in other sections. Pairs can be assigned within or across grade levels, an application known as cross-age peer mentoring. Although logistics may make it more difficult for high school students to mentor middle school students, these cross-age music experiences can nurture younger students’ interest in continuing with their ensemble in high school. Peer mentors also provide academic and social support for same-age and younger students with or without disabilities. These peer mentors can be someone to answer questions, spend time with, and talk to during the inevitable downtime during trips or tours. This support can increase students’ feelings that they belong—that they are connected to the ensemble and that the ensemble is “family.”

Finally, when considering students with disabilities, as with reciprocal tutoring, it is important for them to take on the role of mentor (tutor) as appropriate. Teachers may be skeptical of placing students with disabilities in a mentoring role, but we know from the research that students with disabilities are able to effectively serve as peer mentors not only to other students with disabilities but to typically developing students as well.

Recommendations for All PAL Strategies

Regardless of the strategy that you choose, the following recommendations will increase the likelihood of successful outcomes for you and your students:

Set up frequent, positive, reciprocal partner and group experiences early in the school year to increase positive attitudes toward classmates and decrease stereotyping. Vary partners and group membership and increase contact among students who are unlikely to interact with each other at any other time. Music classes may be the only opportunity during the school day (and in some cases outside of school as well) for students with disabilities to interact with their typical peers; if you see friendships begin to develop, collaborate with other teachers, the students’ parents, and when appropriate, the students themselves to nurture those relationships beyond the music classroom.

Make PAL part of your classroom routine. Include PAL in daily lesson plans from the first day of school. Students may need more structure at the beginning of the year but will quickly learn the routine. Establishing routines early in the school year will be well worth your time.

Vary tasks and assign individual roles based on students’ competencies, strengths, needs, and interests. As appropriate, use multiple ways for students to communicate and respond to each other (some students may use alternative and augmentative communication devices).

Have high expectations for those students who may be considered vulnerable or marginalized. Learn about their talents and strengths and as appropriate, put them in the roles where they will be successful as tutors, mentors, and group leaders and where they can showcase their skills and competencies.

Peer Collaboration in Action

Elementary Music Scenario

Josh is one of many enthusiastic first-grade children in an inclusive music class. He uses a walker to move around and can sit and stand independently when his walker is within reach. His has an adult aide.

Josh’s music teacher always begins each semester by teaching her children how to work together, specifically when, how, and how much to help other classmates during partner and group work. She shows a poster with icons of children sharing and helping each other, follows this with a video of older children role-playing appropriate and inappropriate helping, and then concludes with a short discussion. The entire procedure takes less than five minutes, but she will periodically refer children to the poster before and during partner and group work. She also gives high praise to individuals, partners, and groups who work together and help each other.

This teacher combines the idea of partner and group learning; she assigns partners to work in three different small groups only after considering carefully each child’s strengths and needs. She pairs Josh with a typically developing student named Matt based on previous positive interactions she observed between the two. Josh is perfectly capable of participating in the group’s music-learning activities when Matt brings Josh’s walker so he can sit and stand independently with his group (Matt understands not to help more than is necessary).

During one instrumental improvisation activity, Matt and Josh choose each other as partners. Matt helps Josh select an instrument at the end of the row so that Josh can reach his walker nearby. Both stand independently and improvise at the instrument, taking turns with the mallets. Josh can approximate the musical ideas the teacher is asking the class to play but takes a little longer to pass the mallets to Matt, who waits patiently. He knows that Josh can do many things and enjoys his classmate’s success.

This scenario shows how one teacher, with a simple instructional lesson at the beginning of the school year and prompting throughout the year, nurtured an inclusive, positive learning environment for her students. Partners and groups were implemented, but she also assigned partners for ongoing collaborations and mentorship. Most important, the teacher gave social praise but did not give extrinsic rewards for helping; working together and enjoying each other’s company were their own powerful rewards. Social praise or even no extrinsic rewards are preferred since extrinsic rewards given to children who are already helping or who are engaged in a favorite activity can undermine these positive behaviors; children may decrease or even stop what they were doing.⁸

High School Scenario

Dan is a high school sophomore who loves music and particularly enjoys listening to and watching his high school marching band at concerts and on the field. His sister plays clarinet in the band, and Dan would like to join. He is a confident, positive young man who spends most of his academic classes in separate special education classrooms but has lunch and P.E. with typically developing peers. His Individualized Education Program (IEP) team, particularly his mother, wants him to be included in more regular classes; they start thinking about his interest in marching band. Band could also give him opportunities to interact with more students outside his special education class.

After conferring with the band director, parents, and the special education teacher, Dan is enrolled in band and joins the percussion section. All agree that he will be most successful if he works with a small group of students in the section—students who are selected carefully and are willing to learn how and when to teach and help Dan (one of the students was the section leader who served as the ideal model). His special education teacher is helpful, and his classmates learn that Dan responds to gestures and visual cues. After collaborating with Dan, everyone decides to use gestures and other visual cues for him to learn and play his part.

The decision of the band director is for Dan to join everyone playing from the stands and stand with the pit crew when the band is marching. He learns all the chants from his percussion classmates and shouts as loudly as the others from the stands. In the pit, Dan starts out with drum pads mounted like tenor drums to reduce physical strain and allow him to practice without disrupting the section. He participates with his section, mostly playing downbeats, and begins to play when cued by a section partner next to him. But independently, along with all members of his section, Dan cuts off when cued by the drum major. Dan is becoming a “real” member of the band; the percussionists enjoy seeing his enthusiasm and often “high-five” him and pat him on the back throughout the game. Dan returns the compliments.

His teacher and classmates think Dan could play more instruments, and his role expands to playing chimes and a gong, again when cued by a section partner. His partner hands him different drum sticks and mallets when it is time to play these parts, prompting him to play, and takes them back when it is time to return to the drum pads. This all goes very smoothly, and his teacher and classmates conclude that Dan’s part is a genuine, positive musical addition to the overall sound of the band.

Dan’s inclusion in the band was successful not only because of the ongoing collaboration between his parents and teachers but also because of the collaboration among Dan and his peers. Everyone made good choices, from the determination of his initial role and choice of instruments to decisions that expanded his role and level of participation. And with every decision, Dan was given frequent opportunities to participate independently, feel competent, and develop positive relationships with his classmates. Again, there were no external rewards for anyone; everyone just felt happy doing the right thing.

Learn from Each Other

Inclusive music classrooms present a variety of challenges that are much greater than what teachers may have encountered several decades ago, and there is a continuing need for effective strategies that allow all students to participate and develop musically.⁹ Peer-assisted learning strategies are evidenced-based practices that can lead to positive learning outcomes in inclusive music classrooms.

Music teachers who engage children in partner or small group music-learning activities are tapping into children’s natural instincts to help each other, collaborate, teach, and learn from each other. After decades of research and classroom observations, we know that peer-assisted learning activities benefit children emotionally, socially, and academically and that these strategies will work for all teachers and all students. Peer-assisted learning provides teachers with flexible options for music instruction. The highly positive effects of these strategies for children’s learning suggests that teachers are wise to make positive peer interactions a part of daily classroom routines, if only for a few minutes of the class session. Most important, these peer experiences will increase children’s positive attitudes toward one another and increase their capacity to help each other, celebrate each other’s successes, and ultimately, view their music classroom as a place where every one of them belongs.

Call for Submissions

Equity in Music Education in MEJ

Music Educators Journal (MEJ) is seeking short articles (maximum 1,500 words in length) on topics of interest in the areas of social justice, inclusion, and civil rights as they relate to music classrooms and rehearsal/performance spaces, for a new MEJ occasional feature, Equity in Music Education. If you would like to submit an article for this section, please e-mail it to MEJ Academic Editor Katherine Strand at kstrand@indiana.edu. To accompany this article, please provide your full name, your title, what and where you teach, and an e-mail address (these will be published if your article is accepted). Articles will be reviewed for clarity in writing style, scholarly interest, and utility. If your article is accepted for publication, you will also need to send in a high-resolution color photo of yourself, either a professional photo or an action shot of you teaching, and include the photographer’s name.