Abstract
Children often spontaneously yet purposefully sing songs or create rhythms outside the formal classroom setting to reflect the ways in which they naturally engage with music. Researchers have studied these informal music learning practices to incorporate these experiences into the classroom to offer lessons that are engaging and better reflective of children’s out-of-school musical worlds. This article offers strategies for teachers to incorporate these practices into an upper elementary general music classroom through combining elements of constructivism and the research of Lucy Green on informal music learning and popular musicians. Informal music learning offers another way of thinking about music learning and providing joyful and meaningful music-making experiences in the classroom.
The sounds of xylophones, tubanos, recorders, and guitar, mixed with singing and speaking voices, are heard outside the music room door. It doesn’t quite sound like the song Mr. Grey’s fourth-grade class chose to learn just yet. Inside the classroom, Ms. Ruiz is demonstrating to the tubano group how to count someone in, at the group’s request. The other three groups are working in opposite corners of the room to solve Ms. Ruiz’s challenge to them: to see if they can learn their assigned part of the song by ear. Those in the guitar group are strumming and singing the song while the xylophone and recorder groups play a recording to help them. “Hey, Ms. Ruiz! I think we’ve got it!” one group exclaims. Ms. Ruiz smiles and returns to the front of the room to bring the class back together to play “The Best Day of My Life” by the American Authors. How can music educators best engage elementary students in the classroom? Here are some ideas to contemplate and perhaps test in your teaching.
For many students, the elementary general music classroom provides an exciting opportunity for students to engage in diverse learning experiences such as those described in Ms. Ruiz’s music classroom. Geared toward opportunities for all, lessons include a variety of performing, creating, responding, and connecting with other disciplines to foster musicianship. 1 As music educators, we often focus our attention and subsequently design our lessons based on how students learn within the confines of our classroom. Yet the classroom represents just one of the many places in which music learning occurs for our students. Other places in which students gain and often exchange musical skills and knowledge include songs and chants on the playground, 2 during free time in their homerooms, 3 or perhaps at home while watching YouTube videos. 4 These latter experiences, often described as informal, arise naturally based on the needs and desires the students or their peer groups. 5
NAfME is glad to offer one hour of professional development recognition to you for reading this article. Please follow the link below and complete a short quiz to receive your certificate of completion. http://bit.ly/ConstructingExperiences
Informal music learning can be described as “a variety of approaches to acquiring musical skills and knowledge outside formal educational settings.” 6 Whereas a more traditional model of music learning tends to be teacher driven, sequentially planned, and often notation based, informal music learning is primarily student driven, seemingly haphazard in terms of sequence, and primarily aural based. 7 Lucy Green has brought much attention to the pedagogical implications of informal music learning through her research of a national school music program in England known as “Musical Futures” and adolescents. 8 The goal of this study was to incorporate informal music learning practices of popular musicians into a formal secondary music classroom setting, which yielded many positive results such as increased musical skills, student motivation in music, and cooperative learning skills. 9
There is strong evidence to suggest that bringing informal music learning practices into the classroom is worthy of consideration since it can provide the opportunity for increasing student responsibility, autonomy, and relevance in learning and more accurately reflecting students’ out of school music experiences. 10 Yet, transitioning from a teacher-directed, sequential approach (formal) to a more student-directed, nonsequential (informal) approach is not without challenge for the elementary music teacher and student. Teachers require strategies to help support their young students due to the high level of student independence and the ability to cooperate effectively with peers. Additionally, students may have already been “socialized into the expected patterns of school,” 11 where teacher-directed lessons are often the norm. It is possible that students may become confused when they are asked to take greater responsibility and initiative in their learning.
This article offers teachers strategies through which they can implement informal music learning practices within the elementary general music classroom. Although some of these strategies can be used with younger students, this article will be geared toward upper elementary students in grades three through five. Since many of the principles of informal music learning align with a pedagogy and theory known as constructivism, 12 I begin with an overview of broad constructivist ideas to lay the foundation on which these strategies can be built. I will then offer several practical strategies that are informed by Green’s research 13 to bring informal music learning practices into the elementary general music classroom and discuss challenges to using an informal approach. In addition, a lesson plan designed for initial informal music learning experiences is found at the end of this article.
These strategies are offered as one of many pathways to informal learning: It is my belief that there is no “one true approach” to music learning. The strategies represent a combination of my own experiences in the elementary classroom as well as those found throughout research based on informal music learning. In discussing these strategies, I offer teachers another way to think about music learning and engage their students in joyful and meaningful music-making experiences.
Constructivism and Musical Puzzles
Constructivism is a theory of knowledge and learning that states that students construct meaning through active interactions with their environment. 14 As demonstrated in the opening vignette, students were interacting through talking, listening, and playing to figure out their assigned part of the song. Ms. Ruiz did not directly teach her students their assigned parts of the song but instead challenged them with the task of figuring out their parts by ear. Music educator and scholar Jackie Wiggins labels this as musical problem solving, 15 which I call creating musical puzzles for students. Rather than simply giving the answer, a teacher with a constructivist mind-set creates opportunities through which students can discover answers for themselves and thus have ownership in their learning experience.
In terms of creating the puzzle, you may have noticed that Ms. Ruiz took ownership in creating the musical puzzle by assigning students to learn a specific part by ear. A teacher-generated puzzle is one possible way to work within the constructivist approach. It is also possible for students to take ownership by creating their own puzzles. In fact, this type of student-generated inquiry can be considered a hallmark of “deep learning” 16 since students demonstrate the ability to think creatively and critically in designing puzzles to solve. For example, if one is following the informal learning model set forth by Green in which students are dropped off “into the deep end,” 17 students could be placed into groups with a recording and instruments and then figure out how to play the song on their own or with the help of their peers. From my own experience with elementary students, this approach is rather ambiguous for many classes; therefore, a combination of teacher-guided and student-generated musical puzzles could be used. Ms. Ruiz could have played the song for her whole class and asked students to list what they would need to know to play the song in a more guided fashion. Potential responses could have ranged from vague (how to play the guitar) to specific (which chords to play and when to play them). In either case, Ms. Ruiz could continue to ask questions to prompt students’ thinking in designing their own puzzle and guide them toward discovering how to play the song. Understanding and adopting a constructivist mind-set is helpful to early experiences with informal music learning in the elementary general music classroom, but there are also a few other key elements to constructivism that I would like to address before discussing specific strategies.
The latter approach in which Ms. Ruiz supported her students in discovering their own puzzles represents a process known as scaffolding. American educational psychologist Jerome Bruner used the metaphor of scaffolding to describe a “novice” working with an “expert” where the novice would perform a certain task and the expert would only assist as needed. 18 As with a building that is under construction, the scaffolding that surrounds the building provides support until the building can stand on its own, at which point the scaffolding is removed. In the prior example, Ms. Ruiz scaffolded her students by asking questions to help them create their own puzzles. If this is a common practice in her classroom, eventually her students will be better equipped to design their puzzles without her assistance.
To further add to the constructivist conversation, Russian educational psychologist Lev Vygotsky emphasized the social aspect to constructivism in which learning takes place between people. 19 Green’s work on informal learning capitalized on these interactions between students. One of the main characteristics of the Musical Futures study was for students to form “friendship groups” to aurally replicate a song of their choosing. 20 From this perspective, students who are potentially struggling with a musical concept or skill can learn from one of their peers, who now serve as the “experts,” until they can perform with ease and little to no scaffolding from their peers. In addition, leaders will often emerge through this social process, thus contributing to their overall sense of agency and ownership in music-making.
A constructivist approach can be applied in either a formal or informal setting depending on the level of involvement of the teacher. For example, a constructivist approach in a formal setting with direct instruction would emphasize scaffolding primarily from the teacher. In contrast, a constructivist approach in an informal setting would have little to no scaffolding or rely primarily on peer scaffolding. Activities such as “fiddling around” 21 to learn the bass line to a popular song or having a more knowledgeable student teach their peers how they figured out a melodic line to a song are examples of informal music learning with an underlying constructivist approach. To successfully incorporate informal strategies into an elementary classroom, teachers need to be cognizant of who is providing the scaffolding (teacher or peers) and to what extent and must be able to adapt the amount of assistance necessary.
Mixing the Elements
Although this article highlights characteristics of informal music learning, the reality is that informal and formal music learning exist on a continuum 22 where teachers can choose to what extent their lessons reflect formal or informal elements. Thinking of formal and informal learning in such a way is particularly useful for teachers who are beginning to incorporate informal elements into their classroom. Music educator and scholar Ruth Wright provides a useful analogy to the fader knobs that slide up and down on an audio mixer. 23 Depending on the teacher’s preferences and knowledge of her students, she could begin with more formal approaches to learning while gradually including more informal elements as desired.
In addition to the degree to which music learning can be formal or informal, Wright and others 24 include situation, ownership, and intentionality to consider as additional channels within the overall learning context. Using Wright’s model, I adapted these ideas for elementary general music teachers to consider in Figure 1. I have set the fader knobs on Figure 1 to reflect Ms. Ruiz’s fourth-grade class. We see that the situation was formal since it took place in a music classroom. The learning style and ownership were primarily informal since students were working together to aurally learn a song that they had chosen. The intentionality could exist somewhere in the middle of the continuum depending on any given perspective; Ms. Ruiz’s intentions for her lesson could have more of a learning emphasis, whereas perhaps the students just wanted to play one of their favorite songs. In understanding how formal and informal music learning can occur at any given point within these four areas, teachers can have a greater awareness of possibilities within their classroom and then explore approaches that best suit the needs of their students.
Mixing the Channels of Informal Learning
From Formal to Informal
For teachers and students who are used to more teacher-directed approaches to learning, introducing informal music learning can not only be exciting but also somewhat of a shock. Students may be excited to have the freedom to work with their friends to solve musical puzzles yet may also be at a loss as to where to begin and can easily become overwhelmed or distracted. In addition, a common misconception of informal learning is that teachers do not assist students with their discoveries, which adds to a frustrating environment for both the teacher and student. Similar to the previous discussion of laying the constructivist foundation to assist with providing informal approaches in the classroom, teachers need to lay a similar foundation with elementary students to prepare them for informal learning experiences.
In thinking of the continuum between formal and informal approaches, I suggest teachers first reflect on where their teaching style currently exists and then very gradually move toward informal learning through whole-group modeling during lessons. For instance, using a constructivist mind-set, the entire class could listen to a song and solve the musical puzzle of the instruments, melodies, or rhythms they hear. For example, students’ attention could be directed toward a repetitive bass line or drum part and asked to sing or perhaps create body percussion to reflect that part. I’ve often turned this into a game called “Musical Detective,” where students are excited to solve the mystery yet don’t expect the teacher to solve it for them. Of course, greater scaffolding is provided depending on the needs of students, yet the goal is to assist them in moving toward solving their own mystery or puzzle.
Once students are ready to transition to instruments, the teacher could once again demonstrate to the entire class how to figure out a melodic line on the instrument. At first, teachers can support students through providing the starting note or pitches used in a particular phrase and then allow students to solve the musical puzzle from there. This would also be a wonderful opportunity to discuss the handling of instruments or perhaps review certain previously learned skills, such as how to strum a C chord, to scaffold students’ learning.
If group work is on the horizon, it is also a good idea to discuss group etiquette during this foundational stage to alleviate conflict among students. Some classes may benefit from each child in the group being assigned a specific role to help create behavioral boundaries. For other classes, a group discussion of how to treat one another would suffice. A teacher’s knowledge and intuition of their classes are the best guides in scaffolding for these new experiences.
Once the basic foundation has been laid and students understand the concepts of how to discover something with independence or through group cooperation (social constructivism), the teacher can now adjust some of the fader knobs in Figure 1 toward the informal end. Recall that Ms. Ruiz only assisted the tubano group upon their request rather than intervening of her own accord. For some teachers, allowing students to struggle with these musical skills can be the greatest challenge as we often have been taught to intervene as teachers. Also recall that ownership is another aspect to consider along the formal/informal continuum as shown in Figure 1. A way to foster ownership is allowing students to struggle, within reason, to learn for themselves. I have heard teachers use the phrase “ask three before me” with their students to encourage independence and allow their peers, specifically three of their choosing, to serve as guides.
Although it sounds almost counterintuitive, whole group instruction, modeling, and teacher scaffolding are important foundational strategies to bringing informal music learning practices into the classroom. I emphasize foundational because for students to move toward their own musical discoveries and independence, teachers need to model how it can be done through constructivist principles while gradually transitioning from the role of a leader to that of a guide. I now discuss some additional strategies that also serve as fundamental principles of informal music learning that derive from Green’s research. 25
Emphasizing Aural Learning
Green noted that popular musicians informally learn music by aurally copying recordings of songs that are familiar and enjoyed. 26 At the beginning of this article, I discussed ways in which students gain and share musical knowledge outside of formal teacher-directed settings to illustrate ways in which students already engage in informal learning in their lives. It is doubtful that when students engage in music-making on the playground or at home, traditional Western notation is being used unless the student happens to take formal music lessons. This is not to say that traditional notation shouldn’t be taught but to bring awareness to and capitalize on the ways that students naturally engage in learning music: through aural learning.
You may have noticed that in the opening vignette and under “From Formal to Informal,” all the strategies were aural-based. That is because informal music learning, much like other approaches to music learning (Suzuki, Orff, Music Learning Theory), emphasizes aural skills first. 27 One of the factors that sets informal music learning apart from the other approaches, however, is that musical fluency through reading notation is rarely a goal.
With that being said, the reality is that elementary general music classes often meet once a week, yet projects such as compositions can take place over the span of several classes. How will students remember their progress from one week to the next if they are relying on an aural-based approach? Keeping an audio recording of students’ work is a possible solution that aligns itself particularly well with informal principles. Programs such as GarageBand provide flexibility and organization of multiple classes in that students could record their work as a single track and the file could be saved under the classroom teacher’s name. During their next music lesson, simply open the class file and mute all the tracks except for one for students to hear and recall their work. An added benefit to this approach is that it shows recorded progress over time that can be used for the purpose of assessment or even for sharing with parents at the next parent–teacher conference.
Additionally, I have experienced times when a class period ended and students who were still working have asked to write down what they learned with no recording devices in sight. In this instance, I moved slightly toward a formal approach where I gave students a piece of paper and a pencil; however, I did not insist on traditional Western notation. Using a constructivist approach that considers what meaning students already have with regard to notation, I encouraged them to write down what makes the most sense for them to remember regardless of the notational system that is used.
As a classically trained musician, I understand the value of being able to read traditional notation, yet as an elementary music teacher, I also recognize that placing too much emphasis on traditional notation often creates a barrier to music-making. One of the benefits of incorporating informal music learning practices into the classroom is to recognize and remove the barriers to music-making through emphasizing aural learning. It is my belief that once these barriers are removed, notation is only beneficial to the extent that it supports these joyful and meaningful experiences.
Selecting Songs
Although any song can be learned through informal means, Green suggests that the most important aspect of informal learning is using music that is chosen and valued by the students. 28 This is somewhat of a different approach to most classrooms that believe it is important to introduce students to music that they do not already know. 29 Using songs that are chosen and valued by students is one of the ways in which informal music learning bridges students’ out-of-school music experiences with those in the classroom for more relevant and engaging lessons.
Since elementary general music classes typically have multiple sections of any given grade level, having multiple song selections from students could potentially be overwhelming for one music teacher. A potential solution to alleviate some of these concerns would be to survey students’ preferences across grade levels. Not only will this provide teachers the opportunity to get to know what music their students love, but it will also provide a master list of song selections that could be appropriate for use in the classroom. Teachers can draw from this list, with feedback from students, to create informal learning experiences that would best suit the learning goals of the class. If students label a song as a “girl song” or a “boy song,” consider bringing in multiple versions of that song by different male and female artists. Students will often realize that these superficial labels can change through interpretation and style. Consider asking the students which style is most appealing and therefore exciting for them to learn.
Much of Green’s work began with aurally copying a song of students’ choosing, but it is important to note that the latter part of the Musical Futures project included composition and improvisation. 30 Once students are comfortable copying and playing the songs of their choosing, consider using the same constructivist skills for composition. A simple doorway into this activity could be to write an additional verse to a song that students can already play. Another suggestion is to refer to the master song list that was created based on surveying a grade level for their favorite songs. If there are any songs with questionable lyrical content, using the discretion of the teacher, students can write new lyrics and perform in the style of that song. Backing or karaoke tracks can be found on YouTube to provide accompaniment while students are writing lyrics. Writing new lyrics also invites conversation to discuss underlying messages in music to help students think critically about their musical preferences.
Working Alone and with Others
Another characteristic of Green’s approach to informal learning is self-directed, peer-directed, and group learning. 31 Through self-directed learning, students are able to move at their own pace and have the ability to explore musical elements that grab their attention without input of their peers. I particularly enjoy this aspect of informal learning as it opens up a space in which students do not need to conform to a group to be part of a lesson. Through self-directed learning, students have the opportunity to experience their own agency in being able to figure something out on their own and provide ownership in how they wish to solve a particular musical puzzle. As elementary music teachers, we’ve all experienced students who simply wish to be by themselves for any number of reasons. By acknowledging and including self-directed learning as part of the informal process, we are essentially saying to those students, “It’s okay if you’d like to work alone,” rather than potentially risk students feeling like outcasts for not conforming to group norms.
As to peer learning and group learning, I have already mentioned the benefit of modeling for students how to work together within groups as well as potentially assigning roles to students who need more structure. Another aspect to consider is working within what Green calls “friendship groups.” 32 Students often feel they work better in music class with their friends, 33 and allowing students to choose their own group has the potential to alleviate some of the behavior problems that may occur when students do not wish to work together. Students often experience a sense of psychological safety when they are working with their friends 34 and therefore may lead to greater enjoyment, sharing of skills, and creativity. Additionally, emphasizing a sense of safety through friendships is often important for students with disabilities. Through my own experience, I have found that students with disabilities often connect very deeply with certain students in a class. Through use of friendship groups, these students can safely connect with specific members of the class and benefit from peer learning.
Additional Concerns
Certain logistical elements of informal learning are also worth mentioning. Having enough space for students to work in groups or individually without infringing on others’ work is a concern. If you are fortunate to have a practice room or other space nearby, it would be worth exploring its use to alleviate this concern. Having an additional pair of eyes such as a parent volunteer or teacher’s assistant could also help ensure students’ safety as long as they understand the importance of individual, peer, and group learning.
The informal process can also sound somewhat calamitous, especially to the unaccustomed ears of other faculty and staff members. Similarly, students with or without disabilities could find the informal environment too stimulating to suit their learning style. Although devices such as JamHubs (a headphone mixer that allows up to seven musicians to plug in and play together) can help alleviate some of the volume of instruments during group work, not every school will have the sonic space for student groups or financial means to provide the technology to help alleviate the volume. Teachers will need to decide the best approach, whether through choice of instruments, use of headphones, or even soliciting student suggestions if volume is a concern.
Informal music learning has much to offer to elementary general music students. It has the potential to foster student autonomy, increase enthusiasm and excitement for learning through relevant song selections, and develop musical skills that connect with out of school musical experiences. In applying constructivist principles, teachers can determine the extent to which informal music experiences can benefit their students and ultimately lead toward greater joy and understanding through music.
Additional Resources
Lucy Green, Music, Informal Learning and the School: A New Classroom Pedagogy (Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2008).
Leslie Linton, “Musical Futures in a Grade One Context,” The Recorder 56, no. 2 (2014): 32–36.
Kathryn Marsh, A Musical Playground Global Tradition and Change in Children’s Songs and Games (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008).
“Musical Futures,” accessed November 8, 2017, https://www.musicalfutures.org.
“Musical Futures,” YouTube, accessed November 8, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCatvU8io3SEZhqF8j2WJv8g/featured.
Sheila Scott, “A Constructivist View of Music Education: Perspectives for Deep Learning,” General Music Today 19, no. 2 (2006): 17–21.
Joseph Shively, “Constructivism in Music Education,” Arts Education Policy Review 116, no. 3 (2015): 128–36.
Jackie Wiggins, Teaching for Musical Understanding (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015).
Patricia Shehan Campbell and Ann C. Clements, “Global Music: Rap, Rock, Race, and Rhythm: Music and More in a Methods Class,” The Mountain Lake Reader, no. 4 (2006): 16–22.
Carlos Xavier Rodrigues, Bridging the Gap: Popular Music and Music Education (Reston, VA: MENC, 2004).
“Little Kids Rock,” accessed November 8, 2017, http://www.littlekidsrock.org.
Robert H. Woody, “Popular Music in School: Remixing the Issues,” Music Educators Journal 93, no. 4 (2007): 32–37.
Lesson Plan: Shifting from Formal to Informal
This lesson plan is designed for initial informal music learning experiences in the classroom and uses whole-group modeling and teacher scaffolding as foundational experiences. I have chosen “The Best Day of My Life” by the band American Authors since many of my colleagues have used this song in various contexts (elementary choir, middle school rock band, and undergraduate guitar class) with much enthusiasm from their students. It is an example of a relatively simple song with appropriate lyrical content that many students recognize and enjoy singing. Although this lesson will be using a song of my choosing, I encourage you to use a song that your students love, have chosen, and will be excited to play as discussed in the article. Remember to experiment with the levels of informality with your students to see if they can solve their own musical puzzles as they become more comfortable with and confident in their musical abilities.
Materials
Instruments to play chords such as guitars, ukuleles, or a program such as GarageBand
Note cards showing how to play D and G chords
Instruments to play a melodic riff such as Orff instruments or keyboards
Recording of “The Best Day of My Life” by the American Authors
Dry erase board and markers.
Procedures
Create four columns on the board with the headings Intro, Verse 1, Prechorus, and Chorus on the board.
Tell students that you are going to play a song for them and that you want them to tell you what they notice about it after the music stops.
Play “The Best Day of My Life” up to and through the chorus.
Discuss what students heard, writing specifics in the appropriate section on the board. If a student gives an incorrect answer, listen again up to that point to allow for multiple opportunities to listen to the song.
Select two aspects of the song from the list on the board. For this lesson plan, I will use guitar chords and the opening banjo riff to the song.
Scaffolding with Chords
Play the song again, and have students copy your movements: Show the number one in your hands when you hear a D chord, and show a number four in your hands when you hear a G chord. (Note: Although this is an informal ear-training exercise with chord functions, you don’t have to explain why you’re using one and four unless you have a student who is really into theory.)
Discuss what students noticed. Play again and see if students can manage the movements on their own. You can also select one student to lead them. While they are moving their hands, play the chords for them on the guitar to model what they will be doing soon.
Scaffolding with Riffs
Invite students to sing the melodic riff with you. Similar to scaffolding with guitar chords, play the riff on Orff instruments or a keyboard to model what they will be doing soon while students sing the riff.
Friendship Groups and Musical Puzzles
Tell students that they are going to see if they can figure out how to play a part of the song all by themselves (solve the puzzle of how the song goes). Explain that you’ll be there to help if they really get stuck, but ultimately, you want them to work together.
Have students form friendship groups of three to five students and then split the class in half—one side to play the chord instruments and one to play the riff instruments. Explain that they will have a chance to do both. You can provide each student with an instrument or have partners/groups share an instrument (the latter will decrease the volume of this activity).
Chord Puzzles: For the chord side, instruct students to use the chord diagrams to figure out how to play D and G. Tell them that they can play D and then switch to G or assign one group to play D and another to play G (add the E-minor chord from the prechorus to challenge more advanced players).
Riff Puzzles: For the riff side, indicate which letters are used in the riff by either setting up Orff instruments with those letters only or writing them down on the board. You can even provide the first few starting notes to offer more support if needed. Similar to the guitar side, the students may split up the riff into parts if that makes it easier for them to play.
After students have had ample time to explore, switch sides.
Once both sides have had a chance to practice, listen to each side to see whether the two groups can play together with and without the recording.
Assessment
Students identifying key elements found in the song
Students performing chord changes and riffs on their instruments
Consider using GarageBand or another audio or video device to document the students’ progress of the song over a period of time as an authentic assessment.
Footnotes
Donna Hewitt is an assistant professor and coordinator of music education at Valdosta State University in Valdosta, Georgia. She can be contacted at