Coping With Imminent Death: Thematic Content Analysis on Narratives by Japanese Soldiers in World War II

Population History

Kamikazes were military aviators initiating suicide attacks from Japan. Tokkōtai is an abbreviated form of Tokubetsu Kōgekitai, which is the official name of the kamikaze pilots. The literal translation of Tokubetsu Kōgekitai (Tokkōtai) is “Special Attack Unit,” which refers to the Japanese Imperial Navy and Army (Sasaki, 1997). Ohnuki-Tierney proposed the use of the term tokkōtai instead of kamikaze because, especially in the United States, kamikaze is synonymous with fanatical chauvinists, inscrutable and untrustworthy “Other,” reckless people and suicide bombers (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006).

The tokkōtai operation occurred toward the end of World War II when American invasions were arguably unavoidable. This operation was invented by Ōnishi Takijirō who was a navy vice admiral at the time (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006). The tokkōtai operation included airplanes, gliders, and submarine torpedoes. None of these weapon systems were equipped with means of returning to base (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2002). Ōnishi Takijirō thought that the Japanese soul was unique in the way that they possess the strength to face death without second thought and that this was the only way that the Japanese could bring about a miracle and save their nation. This operation was established in October 1944. Note that no one trained in the military volunteered to be a tokkōtai pilot because among many, it was believed that the operation was meaningless (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2002). There were approximately 4,000 tokkōtai pilots, and 3,000 of them were “boy pilots.” Although an age range is not available, this group consisted of boys younger than late teens and early 20s because that age range was classified as “student soldiers.” These boy pilots were drawn and newly enlisted as soldiers in a special program that trained young boys. The other 1,000 were “student soldiers” who were university students for whom the government granted early graduation to include them in the draft. While the “boy pilots” did not keep diaries at the time, the “student soldiers” left an abundant amount of handwritten transcripts expressing their thoughts and feelings in forms of letters, poems, essays, and diaries.

A collection of diaries from these pilots have been collected in the book Kamikaze Diaries: Reflections of Japanese Student Soldiers by Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney. This book encompasses seven different Japanese soldiers’ diaries. Some were kamikaze pilots, and some were in the army, but all of them died during World War II. Tokkōtai pilots did not commit suicide. Rather, they were “pilots sent on bombing missions in planes not equipped to return, but they did not volunteer in the same way contemporary suicide bombers do” (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006). The more appropriate description would be “killed in action.” In contrast, contemporary suicide bombers are often civilians who consciously volunteer to die by turning themselves into weapons. The timeline of these diaries are a few years before World War II, depending on when they started writing, but all end at 1945 when World War II ended. The narratives portray these seven Japanese soldiers’ feelings, from getting into university, being drafted into the military, and witnessing first person what it is like to be in the military as they waited to die.

Methods of Understanding Stress and Coping: Coping Theory, Thematic Content Analysis

One of the major coping theories was developed by Lazarus. His theory of psychological stress and coping contains two processes: their cognitive appraisal and subsequent coping. These two processes act as mediators for a person’s stressful environment along with short- and long-term outcomes. Lazarus defines cognitive appraisal as the person’s way of defining whether the current environment is relevant to his well-being. Cognitive appraisal branches into primary and secondary appraisal. Primary appraisal is the person’s evaluation of the risk of environment, whether there is any harm or benefit in this situation and how will this harm or benefit the person’s goals, values, or commitments. Secondary appraisal is the person’s evaluation of anything that can be done to improve benefits or prevent or overcome harm. Using different coping strategies can alter the situation, such as seeking more information and changing one’s situation. Taken together, primary and secondary appraisal determine whether the transaction between the person and environment is significant for their well-being (Park, 1997) and whether this significance is threatening harm or challenging benefits (Folkman et al., 1986).

The method of interest in this study is thematic content analysis, using coping strategies as the main focus. The Ways of Coping scale describes the coping strategies people use when facing problems. Coping focuses on what were the individual’s thoughts and actions in a specific situation. Their demands and resources can influence their thoughts and actions. Therefore, individual differences and situational differences together shape coping efforts. Simply put, coping is defined as a person’s effort to manage demands, whether or not it is successful (Carver, Weintraub, & Scheier, 1989).

There are two different sub categories of coping: (a) problem solving coping and (b) emotional coping. The coping strategies that fall under “Problem Solving Coping” are Confrontation, Planful Problem Solving, Seeking Social Support, Escape/Avoidance, and Endurance/Obedience/Effort. The coping strategies that fall under “Emotional Coping” are Distancing, Self-Control, Accept Responsibility, Positive Reappraisal, Compartmentalization, Denial, Supernatural Protection, and Luck (Della-Rossa, 2014). (1) Confrontation is the effort to resolve the situation through assertive or aggressive interaction with another person, which can suggest a degree of hostility and risk-taking. (2) Distancing is the effort to detach oneself emotionally from the situation. (3) Self-Control is the effort to regulate one’s own feelings or actions. (4) Accepting responsibility is to acknowledge that one has a role in the problem and trying to fix the problem. (5) Escape/Avoidance is the effort to escape or avoid the problem physically, which hints on wishful thinking. (6) Planful Problem Solving is the effort to change or escape the situation but with deliberate problem-focused efforts to alter the situation coupled with an analytic approach to solving the problem. (7) Positive Reappraisal is the effort to see a positive meaning in the situation, which hints on creating positive meaning by focusing on personal growth. (8) Seeking Social Support is the effort to obtain information, help, sympathy, or emotional support from another person. (9) Endurance/Obedience/Effort is the effort to submit, survive, persevere, or comply with demands. (10) Compartmentalization is the effort to capture the problem psychologically and isolating it from other aspects of life. (11) Denial is to ignore the problem and not believing in its reality. (12) Supernatural Protection is to attribute survival to superstitious or religious practices, to gain protection. (13) Luck is to attribute survival to good fortune (Della-Rossa, 2014).

There have been several studies that have implemented the use of the thematic content analysis method. These examples have included analyses on the website texts of Canadian medical tourism brokers (Penney, Snyder, Crooks, & Johnston, 2011) and on the memoirs of astronauts (Suedfeld & Weiszbeck, 2004). Similar to the current analysis, the astronaut study separated the narratives by the astronauts into premission, during, and postmission. Thematic content analysis was used similarly as it was in this study to identify themes, observing the frequency of the themes at different time points and comparing these trends with other literature.

The use of thematic content analysis is justified as a descriptive, qualitative method. While research knowledge in coping has been relatively extensive (Folkman et al., 1986), the use of thematic content analysis is a good entry-level descriptive method. This method identifies common themes through the unanalyzable information. Doing so allows us to group information into categorical themes from other, unrelated information. Interpretation is kept to a minimum, but the intent of bringing out the information out onto the surface from the massive entries is sufficient to organize the information (Anderson, 2007).

Research Question

The research questions of this study are (a) what are the possible trends in coping strategies for these tokkōtai pilots who were students during World War II? and (b) how do these trends inform us about other populations facing imminent death? These questions will be addressed using the book as the main source, Kamikaze Diaries: Reflections of Japanese Student Soldiers, by Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney. Within this book, the narratives are divided into six chapters, five of them being single soldiers and one of them being brothers in the war. The method used in this study is the thematic content analysis, coding for coping strategies in the narratives, which may have a possibility to upheave critical information by transforming unanalyzable information to analyzable data.

Source Transcript

Throughout the book, the author has incorporated “quotes” from the diaries of tokkōtai pilots in addition to the longer narratives that are written out in the book. They are embedded within the author’s own paragraphs, separate from the diary entries. These “quotes” are one-sentence (or one-word) diary entries that are not extensive enough to put in the book by itself and incorporate with the author giving the context. That being said, the author has stated that she will want to freely, and with no bias, write the diary entries out (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006).

The study investigated each participant individually, assessing their coping strategies at different time points (if applicable) and assessing each participant’s most common coping strategy in the context of their own individual experience. Therefore, an in-depth understanding is achieved of the individual’s most common coping strategy, rather than a particular overarching generalization. See Appendices A to G for brief descriptions of each of the participants.

Participant 1

The first participant, Sasaki Hachirō, has only one time point. The timeframe was before he was drafted for the army. At this time, the most common coping strategy was coping strategy 4, 6, 9, with 4, 5, and 4, times, respectively, for 17 diary entries. There were three coping strategies that were more frequently used than the rest. Converting the coping strategy number back into labels, the most used coping strategy was #6, which is “Planful Problem Solving,” used five times. The two coping strategies used four times each were #4 and #9, which are “Accept Responsibility” and “Endurance/Obedience/Effort.” Out of these three coping strategies, two of them fall under “Problem Solving Coping,” which are “Planful Problem Solving” and “Endurance/Obedience/Effort.” The third coping strategy falls under “Emotional Coping.” This is to say that Participant 1, Sasaki Hachirō, before he was drafted to become a soldier, used more problem solving coping to deal with his situation before being drafted. He placed more effort to change or escape the situation, using problem-focused efforts to alter the situation coupling with an analytic approach to solving the problem. One example on December 15, 1941, is “I would not refuse to be drafted if it is his order. I am not so weak as to be crushed by the war. However, I resolutely declare my anti-war stance. I will attempt to eliminate wars” (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006, p. 55). Here, although he is being drafted, he focused on changing the situation, by focusing on efforts of another aspect of sacrificing, to eliminate wars. At the same time, he placed more effort to persevere and comply with the demands. One example on April 4, 1940,

Leaves of larch and birch are reflecting the morning sun and it is like looking at a scroll painting. I found my absolute authority here. If man did not possess a political nature, I would not mind sacrificing my life for this absolute authority [beauty and nature]. (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006, p. 52)

Once he found absolute authority, his quest for beauty in nature, he did not mind sacrificing his own life for nature, though not for the emperor. In his own way, he was obeying his absolute quest, and once found, he was content dying for that beauty. The other most common coping strategy was “Accept Responsibility.” It was evident here between June 27 and July 1, 1942, when he stated, “perhaps it is better to go to war; things will be more clear-cut” (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006, p. 62). Here, he was accepting responsibility that he had a role in the problem and that he thought going to the war will make things more clear-cut, clearing up the problem of whether he should die for the war or not. Overall, the first participant has used two problem solving coping strategies and one emotional coping strategy as his most common coping strategies.

Sasaki accepted his fate and knew he had little hope for life. He was vocal in opposing against the war, and his views on the Japanese government and military were predominantly negative. He never avoided his fate. Instead, his love for literature had him copy essays during his Higher School time and subsequently, gave it to his brother, knowing that he would not come back after the war. The Japanese government at this time contrasts with the Nazis as Germans were told to kill, not to accept their own death for the nation (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006). His quest for idealism went in the form of beauty in nature, in human beings, and ideas. Because of his quest for beauty, he saw purity in spirit, and his idealism led him to find greater meaning in life than himself. His quest for idealism portrays the three coping strategies, enduring through the military to find beauty in nature, accepting his role in the problem (need to create a new Japan without war, just beauty) and actively seeking more beauty, for reasons to justify his own death for his country. This relates to Lazarus’s stress and coping theory in that he appraises the problem of dying for the country. His primary appraisal of the situation would be harm to himself. Being in the army, he knows he will not survive; yet, he continues as he overcomes his harm by seeking out beauty and idealism not in himself, but for the greater meaning in life, for a new Japan (secondary appraisal).

Participant 2

The second participant, Hayashi Tadao, had four different time points. The diary entries were in a chronological timeframe, starting when he had not been drafted to the army yet. At this time, there were several coping strategies used once throughout that time point, but there were two coping strategies that were used twice out of seven of the diary entries at first time point. These are coping strategies #3 and #9, which are “Self Control” and “Endurance/Obedience/Effort.” “Endurance/Obedience/Effort” falls under problem solving coping and “Self Control” falls under emotional coping. One example of “Self Control” is on October 12, 1941, “I cannot praise Japan any longer. The war is not to protect the country but the inevitable result of the way Japan has developed into a nation” (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006, p. 79). The way he was regulating his own feelings about the war is the essence of self-control coping. An example of “Endurance/Obedience/Effort” would be on September 23, 1942, “Bildung - that’s right - human life must be Bildung. We must make effort to reach our goal in life. Author’s context: Bildung refers to self-cultivation, that is, a constant effort to improve oneself” (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006, p. 81). Here, he was making an effort to improve himself. At this time point (before being drafted), he has mostly used one problem solving coping strategy and one emotional coping strategy.

At the next time point, where he was drafted as a student soldier, there were five diary entries, of which two coping strategies were used twice. These were coping strategies #4 and #11, which are “Accept Responsibility” and “Denial,” respectively. Both of these coping strategies are under emotional coping. One example of “Accept Responsibility” would be on January 1, 1944, “ . . . we must anticipate their arrival and thus burn all our energy for our goals at the moment . . . Not for the apotheosis of history, but for the realization of world history, we must sacrifice ourselves for its momentary intention” (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006, p. 83). One example of “Denial” is on January 3, 1944,

… However, I cannot tolerate the reduction of the self to nothingness in the process. I cannot approve it. Martyrdom or sacrifice must be done at the height of self-realization. Sacrifice at the end of self-annihilation, the dissolving of the self to nothingness, has no meaning whatsoever. (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006, p. 84)

The third time point, chronologically, was when he became a scout pilot after being drafted as a student soldier. Here, out of the 11 diary entries, the three most used coping strategies (which were used twice each) was #2, #9, and #11, “Distancing,” “Endurance/Obedience/Effort,” and “Denial,” respectively. One example of “Distancing” was on February 6, 1944,

We felt the tension when we were coming to the point of no return. Now, it is quite the opposite. I have no more passion. The military kills passion and transforms people, making them indifferent, turning them into cogs that turn a wheel mechanically. (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006, p. 85)

The last time point, time point #4, is mostly undated but has happened in the last year, 1945, before he died. Out of the three diary entries for this time point, he mostly used coping strategy #4, “Accept Responsibility,” twice. This example shows that he acknowledged that one has a responsibility in the problem.

…  Collapse! Japan is following the road to its destruction. We are heading toward the Todesmeer (sea of death). Those who struggle - it is hopeless … .Japan of the past will be destroyed. Destruction, what a sweet project. Decadence! Withering of a comfortable life. Bobbing and sinking. You - you are alive only by the eroticism of death. (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006, p. 94)

In this last year, he mostly used one emotional coping strategy. Overall, he had used a variety of coping strategies. Before he was drafted, he used “Self-Control” and “Endurance/Obedience/Effort.” While he was a student soldier, he used “Accept Responsibility” and “Denial” mostly. Then, when he became a scout pilot, he mostly used “Distancing,” “Endurance/Obedience/Effort,” and “Denial.” Finally, in his last year, he mostly used “Accept Responsibility.” In the beginning, he used more problem-solving strategies, but as time progressed, he used more emotional coping strategies. This difference may be due to the fact that once drafted into the army, he began to more frequently and intensely contemplate the meaning of the war. Initially, he used to look at life as a way to improve himself. As time progressed, this effort deteriorated and turned into more of a self contemplation of the meaning of war and self, as well as an effort to comply with the military hinting on himself being pessimistic about returning home. Similarly, this is relatable to Lazarus’s stress and coping theory. Although his primary appraisal defines him as being in harm, he overcomes the harm (through his secondary appraisal) by contemplating the meaning of the war and looking at life to improve himself.

Participant 3

The third participant, Takushima Norimitsu, has diary entries split into two timeframes. One of them is before he was drafted. The next time frame is when he was drafted into the Imperial Navy around 1943 and 1944. In the first time frame, before he was drafted, out of his 23 diary entries, he mostly used coping strategy #2 and #4, which are “Distancing” (6 out of 23 times) and “Accept Responsibility” (5 out of 23 times), respectively. One example here of “Distancing” is on May 20, 1940,

My feeling, which I thought was love, is gone, it seems. I am, after all, alone. I cannot be proud of the past and cannot believe in the present. Only hope for the future is shining over my head like a star with infinite truth and passion. Baudelaire declared love secular and base … .As Rousseau said, ‘I feel before I think’. I trust and respect intuition. (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006, p. 112)

After he is drafted into the Imperial Navy, the two most used coping strategies are #4 and #8, which are “Accept Responsibility” (7 out of 29 entries) and “Seeking Social Support” (4 out of 29 entries). One example of “Accept Responsibility” here is on March 20, 1944,

Remembering the past birthdays, I feel so lonely. Her tender feelings—no one else has such love. Why did I not take care of her better? I am filled with deep regrets. I feel sorry for my little brothers, who are unable to have the splendid childhood I had. My mother never leaves my mind, whenever I remember anything of my past. Mother, Mother, Mother. No matter how old one gets, the most important figure in life is one’s mother. (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006, p. 119)

Likewise, an example of “Seeking Social Support” is on March 21, 1944, “Continuation of letter above: ‘I am pleased that I ask you to choose Cape jasmine as the offering [to me after death]. My mother loved that flower, too … ’” (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006, p. 119). The former is a type of emotional coping strategy where he was accepting responsibility, lecturing himself why he did not take care of his mother better. The latter is a form of problem-solving coping strategy where he sought help from others, in this case, asking his sweetheart to pick the type of flower for his deathbed. At this timeframe, he had used one emotional coping strategy and one problem-solving coping strategy. Overall, he used more emotional coping strategies than problem-solving coping strategies. Even though there was a problem-solving coping strategy, it was focused on the aspect of time when he has died and wants his sweetheart to pick the right flower (Cape jasmine) for him. Most of the coping strategies he had used have had an internal blame. Blaming himself for not taking care of his mother more and having to feel sadness but knowing that he has to break up with his sweetheart because of the war and the fact that he knows that he is not returning home. Even asking for the type of flower when he dies. To reiterate, the coping strategies he mostly used were “Accept Responsibility,” “Distancing,” and “Seeking Social Support.” The former two are emotional coping strategies, and the latter one being a problem-solving coping strategy. According to Lazarus’s stress and coping theory, his coping strategies would prevent future harm by distancing himself from the problem. He perceives that the problem is harmful to his well-being, and he tries to prevent future harm.

Participant 4

The fourth participant, Matsunaga Shigeo, has diary entries only in one time frame, which was before the war actually started. Out of seven diary entries, the mostly used coping strategy was “Self-Control” (three out of seven times). One example is “While the summer heat is still on the street, we hear ‘Banzai’ (Hail) on the street every day. ‘You must be anxious to go [to war]’ people [say]. I remain silent, with a faint smile” (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006, p. 138). This passage shows the act of self-control because he regulated his own feelings. This coping strategy, “Self-Control,” is primarily an emotional coping strategy; hence, even before the war started, he had already been using emotional coping to deal with the problem of war. According to Lazarus’s stress and coping theory, he appraised the problem (war) as harmful to his well-being, and he prevented further harm by regulating his own feelings and actions.

Participant 5

The fifth participant, Matsunaga Tatsuki, has diary entries in two different timeframes. One being before he was drafted. The second timeframe is when he was being drafted in the army at the beginning of 1942. In the first timeframe, when he was not drafted yet, the two most used coping strategies were #3 and #8. They were “Self-Control” (6 out of 25 entries) and “Seeking Social Support” (5 out of 25 times). The former, an emotional coping strategy where the participant regulates their own feelings and actions and the latter, a problem-solving coping strategy where he seeks out social support. On August 16, 1941, he showed self control with his feelings in asking his wife out.

At night again at Suikosha [a restaurant]. We spent some time in the garden … .I feel that I am loved. I won’t say a word. I just watch her. Just the two of us … .I restrained myself and did not ask when I can see her next, which I regret[ted] in the following days. (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006, p. 143)

In the second timeframe, out of 17 diary entries, “Endurance/Obedience/Effort” was used the most (5 out of 17 times). This is one of the problem-solving coping strategies, and it was used in the context of complying with the military. The example in this timeframe shows that he has to persevere under the demands of the military.

It has been a month since I was made a probationary officer … .I want to make myself clear here in case I fall [die] - as advice for those who succeed me after I fall. I was forced without choice to go through the examination to be a candidate to be an officer … .Yet, the official line is that I volunteered. (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006, p. 149)

Overall, this participant, Matsunaga Tatsuki has used three different coping strategies, two of which are problem-solving coping strategies and one emotional coping strategy. They are “Seeking Social Support,” “Endurance/Obedience/Effort,” and “Self-Control.” Initially, before being drafted, the use of “Seeking Social Support” and “Self-Control” was to consult his feelings about the war. As time passed and he was drafted, he was forced to comply with the military, losing most of his personal feelings. Although this might have happened, some of his diary entries have hinted in “Endurance/Obedience/Effort” in the aspect of persevering with the military but in his own way, putting effort into creating a unique training for his soldiers. In some aspects, “Endurance/Obedience/Effort” does not have to be in the same direction as the higher authority, but their own direction.

Participant 6

The sixth participant, Hayashi Ichizo, has one timeframe, which has diaries written while he was at the Naval Base. Out of 28 diary entries, the two mostly used coping strategies are “Accept Responsibility” (8 out of 28 diary entries) and “Positive Appraisal” (5 out of 28 diary entries). Both of these coping strategies are emotional coping strategies. The former is shown here, where he accepted his role in the problem of dying for the emperor and that he accepted the fact that he is not afraid of the moment of his death but how the fear of death will disturb his life.

To be honest, I cannot say that the wish to die for the emperor is genuine, coming from my heart. However, it is decided for me that I die for the emperor … .I shall not be afraid of the moment of my death. But I am afraid of how the fear of death will perturb my life. (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006, p. 170)

Overall, during his time in the Naval Base, he has used mostly emotional coping, in which one of them (Accept Responsibility) is used in the way of accepting his “fate” of dying for the emperor, and the other (Positive Appraisal) is used in a positive light, looking at his situation in a more positive perspective. Relating to Lazarus’s stress and coping theory, he overcame his problem by utilizing coping strategies in a more positive light, to see the benefits in the problem.

Participant 7

The final participant, Nakao Takenori, has diary entries written in two different timeframes. The first timeframe was before he was drafted and the second timeframe was when he was drafted as a student soldier. In the first timeframe, the most used coping strategy is “Self-Control” (6 out of 17 times). An example is shown here:

We are fighting for life against Britain, the great empire on the decline, and America, at its peak for its material culture. Although I am not physically in the battlefield yet, I am already in it. I myself, in pursuit of the infinite and in love with the absolute, too, must sacrifice myself for the nation … .Is the “absolute” to be located in our sacrifice for the nation? … .I cannot help but agonize over the contradiction … .I, who have come to know the depth of life and live that life, must sacrifice my life for our country since my life is destined to be given for the nation? … .I painfully struggle in pursuit of truth. (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006, p. 201)

In the second timeframe, the mostly used coping strategy is “Compartmentalization” (4 out of 4 diary entries). This coping strategy is also a type of emotional coping strategy and is the effort to capture the problem psychologically and isolate it from other parts of their lives. Here, in this example,

Author’s context: Last letter to his parents. At the farewell party, people gave me encouragement. I did my best to encourage myself. I am truly a happy person. I can now meet my death with the belief that I have been treated with sincerity by people when I have not done anything for them. I have nothing to say at this time. I only hope for health for you all. (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006, p. 194)

Refer to Appendix Y for the frequency of coping strategies used by all participants across Timeframe 1 and Timeframe 2.

The coping strategies that are used more than once at Timeframe 1 (before being drafted) are “Self-Control,” “Accept Responsibility,” and “Endurance/Obedience/Effort.” “Endurance/Obedience/Effort” is the only problem-solving coping strategy used before the participants were drafted. This coping strategy was used in the perspective of placing efforts to find their true self, and persevering through their faith in the beauty of nature, which once found, encouraged their ability to sacrifice their self for their nation, family, and others whom they loved. “Self Control” and “Accept Responsibility,” the two other coping strategies are emotional coping strategies. These two coping strategies are used to assimilate their feelings, to feel responsible not just for their nation but for a new Japan, their family, to end all wars, and to be a man according to their cultural gender definitions of the time.

In Timeframe 2 (while they were in the army), the two coping strategies that are used more than once are “Accept Responsibility” and “Endurance/Obedience/Effort.” The problem-solving coping strategy, “Endurance/Obedience/Effort,” is used in the form of complying with the military, and at times, placing effort to create their own unique form of training for their soldiers and to keep their true self attached, by giving education to their soldiers. “Accept Responsibility” is exercised for them to assimilate their feelings and for them to realize that they have a role in the problem, to either sever their ties with their family or loved ones to prevent them from being more emotionally upset. They also acknowledged their role to fulfill their “fate” in dying for their nation, for a new Japan, or to believe that dying will prevent someone else from dying and just that though makes them believe that sacrificing their life is worth it.

The implications of the coping strategies used in both timeframes present strategies in an internal manner. In both timeframes, they used “Endurance/Obedience/Effort,” which is categorized under problem solving coping. This strategy, among the other two emotional coping strategies (Accept Responsibility and Self-Control), focuses on the self. While the participants waited to be drafted into the military, the most common strategy was to be passive about the situation. They accepted their responsibility in the military, regulated their feelings on this issue, and obeyed what Japan wanted them to do. This potentially demonstrates a different subcategory of coping, specifically passive and active coping strategies. All the most common coping strategies focus on the passive self. Further research can explore the possibility of coping strategies with regard to the self, whether the participant utilizes passive or active coping strategies to approach the problem.

Throughout this study, self-control, accepting their responsibility, and persevering with demands are significant coping strategies.

Because these diary entries were intended to be read following the death of their writers, it is important to the reader’s experience while reading these texts. In so doing, it is possible to have a deeper understanding of what sentiments, emotions, and message the participants were portraying. The main text source for analyses, Kamikaze Diaries: Reflections of Japanese Student Soldiers, was full of emotional and compassionate diary entries. The heavy emphasis on romanticism from each participant portrays a different view on life than the current era, where materialism is heavily thought of. Again, the participants were all at a university level and were also well educated in languages. Some of them were in love with purity itself and searched through essays, books, and anecdotal experiences, to find the meaning of life, greater than their current life. With so much knowledge and ambition in life, to read the progress of how each one of them died was touching, in both extremes; sorrow and hate. The feeling of sorrow appeared throughout their struggles coming to terms with their imminent death. In the last few days before they left for the military and even during the military, they thought of their family, giving thanks to them, and addressed each sibling a last message. The soldiers also gave closure to areas of their lives other than their family, such as giving their unfinished work back to their professor, leaving their jobs, and watching their last play. Knowing that they will have to face death in the military, they still acted calmly and gave themselves closure in each aspect of their lives. The act of closure is what struck a chord while reading. The other feeling, hate, was toward their overall lives. In light of their writing, reflections on the current generation being in a world with relative peace were brought to mind, especially as compared with soldiers who were forced to be born in Japan, in 1940s, and consequently, their dreams had to be prematurely shut down.

Limitations

One apparent limitation is a lack of several raters to create an interrater reliability for the coding of coping strategies. Multiple raters and high interrater reliability will provide evidence that the coping strategies coded are agreed upon. Although the study has been coded with a certified thematic content analysis human rater, having more than one rater will increase the reliability of the evidence. Further limitations that can be observed at this point in time relate to the comparability of samples. The samples of interest are comparable with other populations that face imminent death, on the basis that it is not voluntary. Nonetheless, looking into different samples facing death has the ability to bring up information unbeknown to us. Another limitation is the generalizability of the population of interest and the sample the study has used. For example, when comparing tokkōtai pilots and terminal cancer patients, although both are facing inevitable death, important differences exist. The tokkōtai pilots were facing death with respect to having wars. Terminal cancer patients are facing death with respect to their internal cancer consuming them from the inside. Another difference is shown between death being imminent or possible for soldiers. For surviving soldiers, they frequently used social support as a coping strategy to dampen their past trauma, whereas tokkōtai pilots had to accept their role in dying for the nation. In addition, the diary entries are written by Japanese young adults who are all well educated, all having university-level education, when compared with terminal cancer patients that vary in terms of their education, which might affect their production of feelings and thoughts that they might have. Furthermore, the leader of the kamikaze idea itself thought that the Japanese soul was unique in that it can face death without looking back. This idea of a courageous and confident Japanese soul might pertain only to Japan’s culture and decrease the generalizability of the results. Other cultures might not think that they can die without second thought. They might have a different portrayal of their soul and life, subsequently affecting the coping strategies they would utilize. Also, the method used is a retrospective method and to give causality to the results, a prospective method where manipulation can be done should be implicated. The current method is especially relevant for extracting the context and subtleties of the human experience from all the data. Such is especially the case for populations that are difficult to access, such as the tokkōtai pilots. Further studies should also implement a more manipulative method that can bring causality into the equation, subsequently backing up the evidence and its direction of causality (Kleinbaum & Kupper, 1982).

Several issues have surfaced in previous studies that use thematic content analysis, Ways of Coping scale. First, the nature of this method is cross sectional and retrospective, which does not allow us to make causation in the results. The results can be bidirectional, and the observations that seem to have a trend can go in both directions, meaning, for example, depression can lead to an “Accept Responsibility” coping strategy, or “Accept Responsibility” coping strategy can lead to depression. The type of coping strategy can influence the outcome of a situation or vice versa. This issue can be resolved by having a prospective design (Folkman et al., 1986). Another issue involves macroanalytic and microanalytic assessment techniques. Some coping strategies may be more preferred in one situation; therefore, they may vary from one situation to another. Alternatively, macroanalysis can observe coping strategies as a whole, not just isolated situations. The narratives influence the generalizability and specificity of the results (Folkman et al., 1986). Also, thematic content analysis heavily relies on self-report to learn what the sample felt and did during the situation. Although self-report may be the only way to reach into certain kinds of information, it is recommended that self-report needs to be used with other methods such as physiological assessment and observational studies (Folkman et al., 1986).

Future Directions

Future studies should consider the possibility of a better alternative coping strategy for populations facing imminent death such as terminal cancer patients, AIDS patients, or patients with Huntington’s disease. There are also populations who are not facing imminent death, but possible death, such as surviving soldiers, who may turn to more appropriate alternative coping strategies. Investigating these groups’ narratives can provide opportunities to understand how they cope with their situation and how this can affect clinical treatment. This study hints on accepting their fate (Accept Responsibility), persevering with the war in their own positive light (Endurance/Obedience/Effort), and regulating their feelings, which mostly are contemplating why they need to die for their nation (Self-Control). Solidifying these coping strategies using various clinical treatments that target terminal cancer patients’ cognitions and perceptions of their cancer can regulate their feelings, persevering with their cancer in a positive way, and finally accepting their role in the problem and actively trying to fix it, enduring through their cancer (Clayton, Butow, Arnold, & Tattersall, 2005). Another aspect of this study that should be considered in future studies is sample control. The unique Japanese soul and identity described in the diaries of tokkōtai soldiers may affect results in different ways. In future studies, sampling with other samples such as Western cultures or from another time period can observe differences in coping strategies and what those findings may further explain. Further research can be implemented on treatments targeting cognitions and perceptions regarding individuals as a person, their role in the problem and extracting their effort to persevere with their stress, not giving up hope.

The purpose of this study was to observe the possibility of a trend in coping strategies. The coping strategies found to be used more frequently before they entered the military were “Accept Responsibility,” “Endurance/Obedience/Effort,” and “Self-Control.” The trend of coping strategies of tokkōtai pilots appeared to be all focused on the self, bringing the idea of integrating passive and active coping rather than just problem-solving and emotional coping strategies. After they entered the military, the trends found were “Endurance/Obedience/Effort” and “Accept Responsibility.” These trends inform us that other populations facing imminent death might similarly implement the same coping strategies. For example, while waiting for the medical results of potential terminal cancer, these patients may have a significant chance utilizing “Endurance/Obedience/Effort,” enduring through the demands of waiting for the results, “Accept Responsibility,” realizing they are the source of the problem and need to find a way to correct themselves, and “Self-Control,” regulating their own feelings and action. Similarly, there are studies showing that soldiers fight and die for their comrades in arms. Their motivation to fight is found in the interpersonal, intimate relationships among the soldiers. These emotional bonds formed during combat, especially if the survivors have witnessed a lot of deaths, not only assist soldiers during times of stress but can last a lifetime. The loss of comrades in battle buffers the social bonds between them and the social support and relationships can lessen psychological impairment of combat trauma. Social support, for survivors, is needed to cope with past trauma, and comradeship provides symbolic immortality (Bryant, 2003). While the results have been shown and having been confirmed for having a type of terminal cancer, these patients, similar to the kamikaze pilots facing imminent death, may use “Self-Control” to pass by each day by regulating their feelings, or “Endurance/Obedience/Effort” to endure through the cancer stages and not giving up. Subsequently, other populations facing imminent death might have a possibility of applying both problem solving coping and emotional coping with respect to the self (passive coping). When facing death, other populations may have a potential to implement such passive coping. Death can be intimidating to face but acknowledging your role with death and preserving death may be the only way.

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Appendix Appendix A. Brief Overview of Participant 1.

Narratives	Born, Died	Religion	Academic background	Social economic status
Participant 1: Sasaki Hachirō	Born on 1922, died on April 1945, at age of 22 and 9 months	Romanticism	University of Tokyo, majoring in economics	Upper middle class. Father with successful lumber business

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Appendix B. Brief Overview of Participant 2.

Narratives	Born, Died	Religion	Academic background	Social economic status
Participant 2: Hayashi Tadao	Born on 1922, died on July 28, 1945, at age of 24	Marxism	Imperial University of Kyoto	Nothing explicit. Lived in large mansion. Traditional samurai family

Note. Brief description: He was drafted as a student soldier and sought training as a scout pilot, then became a Navy Air Force pilot with the rank of ensign. His plane was shot down by an American fighter plane during a scouting mission. The themes that were central to Hayashi Tadao were the quest for beauty in nature, people, and ideas. He also had an intense desire for intellectual companionship with male friends and to find a real, intellectual friend. He dealt heavily with the issue of dying for the country and the desire to live.

Other interesting information: His eldest son, Hayashi Katsuya, did not agree with the tradition of “Meiji style,” and the feudalistic approach of family and argument caused their (Hayashi family) father’s stroke and subsequent death.

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Appendix C. Brief Overview of Participant 3.

Narratives	Born, Died	Religion	Academic background	Social economic status
Participant 3: Takushima Norimitsu	Born on March 1921, died on April 9, 1945, at age of 24	Romanticism	Keiō University	Nothing explicit. Father is well-to -do businessman who owned an automobile manufacturing company

Note. Brief description: He was drafted into the Imperial Navy in September 1943. He was in Keiō University which was one of the two top private universities in the country. Takushima perished as a lieutenant. He died by flying a land-based attack bomber which was part of Japanese’s last-minute effort to save the country, but this operation was not part of the tokkōtai operation. His favorite flower is the Cape jasmine, and he interpreted it as a metaphor for the Japanese people during the war, as they could not explicitly express their thoughts in wartime and had to keep them private, with the only possible way of articulating it being in the diaries. The flower was also a metaphor for his mother.

Other information: His father remarried, and Takushima Norimitsu had a hard time feeling positive toward his stepmother without having influence from his intense love for his birth mother.

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Appendix D. Brief Overview of Participant 4.

Narrative	Born, Died	Religion	Academic background	Social economic status
Participant 4: Matsunaga Shigeo	Born on 1913, died on November 28, 1938, at age of 25	Nihilism, Christianity	Kokugakuin University	Upper class

Note. Brief description: Matsunaga Shigeo was not part of the tokkōtai operation, but they were drafted as students and were forced to fight and consequently die. Both he and his brother, Matsunaga Tatsuki, enjoyed a high status in society. Their writings were associated with high social class standards. Their father was a high-ranking officer in the Japanese Navy, and their biological mother (deceased) was a well-educated Christian. Even though their father had a high-ranking position in the Navy, they were still drafted into the army.

Other information: He entered First Higher School as a science major and took a job teaching literature to elementary schoolchildren. He also had a literary career, publishing issues in a literary magazine.

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Appendix E. Brief Overview of Participant 5.

Narratives	Born, Died	Religion	Academic background	Social economic status
Participant 5: Matsunaga Tatsuki	Born on 1916, died on 1944, at age of 28	Christianity	Kokugakuin University	Upper class

Note. Brief description: Married a woman named Ayako. Two months later, he failed the physical examination for the Navy, was drafted by the army, and was sent to China via Korea. He was promoted to the rank of first lieutenant. His view of women was quite progressive, a characteristic that can be seen in other participants’ narratives as well. They discussed “new feminism” where they advocated women’s education and their full realization as human beings. He also wanted his wife to be an independent and rebellious spirit and to grow intellectually during their separation. He was attracted to her physically but restrained his sexual desires out of respect for her, even the night before he left for the army.

Other information: Te is the younger brother of Participant 4, Matsunaga Shigeo.

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Appendix F. Brief Overview of Participant 6.

Narratives	Born, Died	Religion	Academic background	Social economic status
Participant 6: Hayashi Ichizō	Born on February 6, 1922, died on April 12, 1945, at age of 23	Christianity	Imperial University of Kyoto	Nothing explicit. Well-educated family

Note. Brief description: He was born into a well-educated Christian family. He was the oldest male child. He had two older sisters named Hiroko and Chiyoko as well as a younger brother, Makio. His father died suddenly after being appointed assistant professor at the University of Tokyo. His father respected people, and even called his daughter “Hiroko-sama,” which is a polite form of addressing people. Hayashi Ichizō’s mother struggled to accept her husband’s sudden death but carried her husband’s belief in enlightenment and civilization. Therefore, she taught farm girls at the local elementary school even though at that time, peasants were thought not to need education, let alone peasant girls.

Other information: Their family was devout Christians, and the Bible united the family spiritually, keeping the children and their mother close.

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Appendix G. Brief Overview of Participant 7.

Narratives	Born, Died	Religion	Academic background	Social economic status
Participant 7: Nakao Takenori	Born on March 31, 1923, died on May 4, 1945, at age of 22	Cosmopolitan humanism	University of Tokyo in law	Nothing explicit. But well off due to father being a manager of a factory producing silk threads

Note. Brief description: His father was the manager of a factory producing silk threads in Gifu. Nakao had an elder brother who went to technical high school specializing in silk thread production. His younger brother became a painter.

Other information: On May 5, 1945, the family went to Takuma Base, hoping to see Nakao Takenori, but the military told them he was not there. What they did not realize was that he had already died, and the military did not say anything. They only knew about his death after the war ended.

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Appendix H.

List of Coping Strategies, Coded by Their Numbers.

Coping strategies
1. Confrontation	Effort to resolve the situation through assertive or aggressive interaction with another person, which can suggest a degree of hostility and risk-taking	8. Seeking Social Support	Effort to obtain information, help, sympathy, or emotional support from another person
2. Distancing	Effort to detach oneself emotionally from the situation	9. Endurance/ Obedience/Effort	Effort to submit, survive, persevere, or comply with demands
3. Self-Control	Effort to regulate one’s own feelings or actions	10. Compartmentalization	Effort to capture the problem psychologically and isolating it from other aspects of life
4. Accept Responsibility	Acknowledging that one has a role in the problem and trying to fix the problem	11. Denial	Ignore the problem and not believing in its reality
5. Escape/Avoidance	Effort to escape or avoid the problem physically, which hints on wishful thinking	12. Supernatural Protection	Attributing survival to superstitious or religious practices, to gain protection
6. Planful Problem Solving	Effort to change or escape the situation but with deliberate problem-focused efforts to alter the situation coupled with an analytic approach to solving the problem	13. Luck	Attributing survival to fortune
7. Positive Reappraisal	Effort to see a positive meaning in the situation, which hints on creating positive meaning by focusing on personal growth

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Appendix I. Participant 1, Sasaki Hachirō, Coping Strategies Tallied.

Participant 1—Sasaki Hachirō
Time 1—Before being drafted
Coping number	Number of times	Coping diary entry total: 17
3	2	2/17
4	4	4/17
5	2	2/17
6	5	5/17
7	2	2/17
9	4	4/17
10	1	1/17
12	1	1/17

Note. See Appendix J for full analysis.

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Appendix J.

Full Analysis: Participant 1, Sasaki Hachiro, Diary Entries at One Timeframe, Time 1 Before He Was Drafted Into the Military (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006).

Participant 1—Sasaki Hachirō
Time 1—Before being drafted
Date	Diary entry	Problem	Coping number
March 30, 1939	I was aghast and annoyed. I resorted to some meaningless abstract statements. He kept shouting at me, preaching how we should recognize the responsibility of being able to study under the current political situation.	Being shouted at by senior	6
April 4, 1939	She ran up to my room . . . “Thank you. Thank you. It is all because of your effort.” . . . began to cry . . . turned out Mr. Mineo (professor at the First Higher School) had sent her a telegram notifying her of my successful entrance to the First Higher School. I tried my best not to cry, since a man with a great future should not show emotion for this sort of thing . . . but it was hard to control my emotion.	Mother was crying	3
April 17, 1939	Since everyone was getting up early, I woke up at 6:30 . . . the ceremony for the entrance to the dormitory started at 9:00 A.M. After listening to the fifty-year history of the First Higher School . . . when all of us, including the President, sang “Gyokuhai” [the school song], I shed tears, unexpectedly. The members of the entire school put our efforts together in order to build our country. This is how the graduates of the First Higher School carry out the role of leading the nation.	Heard the history of First Higher School	4
April 2, 1940	The words of Mrs. Stowe—“because I am loved by God,” “I am with God”—How much do I wish to have an absolute authority! But, I cannot believe in Christianity. Any other absolute authority?	Believing in an absolute authority	5
April 4, 1940	We entered Kamikōchi and greeted the Hodaka mountain peaks in the morning. Leaves of larch and birch are reflecting the morning sun and it is like looking at a scroll painting. I found my absolute authority here. If man did not possess a political nature, I would not mind sacrificing my life for this absolute authority [beauty and nature].	Finding absolute authority	9
April 13, 1940	If one thinks of a young life who dies in a state of purity and beauty, one even regrets that a human being is essentially a political animal. I know it comes from sentimentalism, but if one must die, one wishes to die beautifully.	Pondering death	3
November 1, 1940	I prefer to think that “inevitability” is more important than “necessity” . . . I am truly grateful for being alive . . . We cannot detach ourselves from the present condition . . . The most important thing is the freedom of will, free will is not an answer to our chaos.	Finding his idealism	6
March 7, 1941	A new national system, unification under the emperor—these are slogans . . . Now we see a sudden surge of patriotism and concern over our country. It is quite natural for anyone who is conscious of being a Japanese to have such feelings. However, we cannot allow an ugly hand to capture the pure soul . . . To be utilized by them will prevent us from achieving our goal for our nation.	Cannot allow right wing patriotism to capture the pure soul	4
December 15, 1941	Being able to live well in this emperor’s state under his benevolence, I would not refuse to be drafted if it is his order. I am not so weak as to be crushed by the war. However, I resolutely declare my anti-war stance. I will attempt to eliminate wars.	Emperor drafting him as a soldier	9, 6
January 10, 1942	Realizing how I have no more meaning for my life, I shall find the rationale in dedicating my life for others.	No more meaning for my life	6, 7
January 12, 1942	I don’t care what happens anymore. I just want to die.	Death	5
January 26, 1942	Since I may die any time, I make my living quarters neat, live a well-organized life, and take my photos [for posterity].	Chance of death anytime	6
March 1, 1942	Today the entrance examination begins. I wore my usual old uniform, but my underclothes were nice and clean. I thought I wrote unique opinions on the questions on national history and Western history. Of course in retrospect I could have done better, but if they don’t pass me, it means they cannot fathom my ability. A question on contemporary literary criticism was from Tanabe Hajime’s Historical Reality. Isn’t it depressing to think I was once so impressed by such a book! The book is full of loose ends. Dogmatic at that. It is nothing but empty reasoning.	Began entrance examination for University of Tokyo	7
March 4, 1942	It is a small spider. Feeling mischievous, I put a cigarette I was smoking near the spider. It frantically ran away . . . If this happens to a human being, he or she will go insane. Above all, the spider could not understand where the heat was coming from. Human beings too would lose sanity if they could not understand the cause of the trouble they are suffering. I wish to be a man who can, even while struggling, objectively identify the cause of the trouble and transmit that knowledge to the next generation. I wish only then to die.	Humans would lose sanity if they could not understand the cause of the trouble they are suffering	6, 10
March 31, 1942	Although I do not want to disappoint my parents, if I must do so in my pursuit of a larger cause, I have no choice. However, I hope it will not happen.	To disappoint or not disappoint parents	9
June 27, 1942 to July 1, 1942	At one time I even embraced General Nogi; perhaps it is better to go to war; things will be more clear-cut.	Going to war or not?	4
November 10, 1943	I don’t know if I am supposed to win this war but I will fight as much as I can, leaving my fate in your hands . . . I pray that we will see the day as soon as possible when we welcome a world in which we do not have to kill enemies whom we cannot hate. For this end, I would not mind my body being ripped innumerable times.	Not knowing if I’m supposed to win this war	12, 4

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Appendix K.

Participant 2, Hayashi Tadao, Coping Strategies Tallied, at Different Timeframes.

Participant 2—Hayashi Tadao
Coping number	Number of times
Time 1—Before being drafted
1	1/7
2	1/7
3	2/7
6	1/7
9	2/7
Time 2—Drafted as a student soldier on December 9, 1943
3	1/5
4	2/5
5	1/5
11	2/5
Time 3—Became scout pilot in January 28, 1944
2	2/11
3	1/11
4	1/11
5	1/11
6	1/11
9	2/11
10	1/11
11	2/11
12	1/11
Time 4—Random thoughts in 1945, undated
1	1/3
4	2/3

Note. See Appendix L for full analysis.

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Appendix L.

Participant 2, Hayashi Tadao’s, Diary Entries at Four Different Timeframes, Time 1 Before He Was Drafted Into the Military, Time 2 During His Student Soldier Times in the Military, Time 3 During His Scout Pilot Times, and Time 4 During the Last Year of His Life, Undated With Random Thoughts (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006).

Participant 2—Hayashi Tadao
Date	Diary entry	Problem	Coping number
Time 1—Before being drafted
April 6, 1940	Human beings have sexual desire . . . .Love, pleasure of the body—they are so far away from me. I am afraid of love. I cannot be confident that the physical union can be achieved with purity. Perhaps love is possible only with someone like M. Physical union with purity and pure pleasure are in the realm of gold hunt. It is so far removed from me.	Afraid of love	2
April 6, 1940	Among my friends, I respect and love S most. But, I am sure he does not have respect and love for me. He is mysterious. My foremost effort today is to try to be worthy of his friendship [if it happens].	Want to get friendship from S	1
May 23, 1940	My daily assignment to myself is to read 5 pages in English and 100 pages in Japanese . . . .During my higher school days, my assignment to myself is: (1) to read 300 books in Japanese, and 15 books in English; (2) to master English to the level of my Japanese; (3) to improve my physical stamina—daily exercise for 30 minutes, but not to read when I rest. Author’s context: In order to carry out this self-imposed schedule, he plans to buy a watch.	Self assignment of work	6
October 12, 1941	The nation is an entity possessing an enormous power to control . . . .I cannot praise Japan any longer. The war is not to protect the country but the inevitable result of the way Japan has developed into a nation.	Possessing enormous power to control	3
October 12, 1941	I feel that I have to accept the fate of my generation to fight in the war and die. I call it “fate,” since we have to go to the battlefield to die without being able to express our opinions, criticize and argue pros and cons of issues, and behave with principles, that is, after being deprived of my own agency . . . .To die in the war, to die at the demand of the nation—I have no intention whatsoever to praise it; it is a great tragedy.	Accepting fate of my generation to fight in war and die	9
September 23, 1942	Bildung—that’s right—human life must be Bildung. We must make effort to reach our goal in life. Author’s context: Bildung refers to self-cultivation, that is, a constant effort to improve oneself.	Making effort to reach our goal in life	9
September 30, 1942	I must be honest. Sexual desire—it is painful. I star at myself longing for the physical unity. Then I fight it as dirty and ugly. It is my anger at not satisfying the desire. On the other hand, I dream of: breathing [of a lover], smell of her sweat that excites you, the smell of the body of the opposite sex, the touch of a warm body, the joy of the embrace of two in love, playing around without the feeling of shame, frenzied dance of love, and falling asleep in her arms, and a pleasant feeling of waking up [beside her]—all these thoughts and images descend on me. Perhaps it is a bad dream after reading novels . . . I daily struggle with this pain. Conquer yourself; take control of yourself!	Painful sexual desires	3
Time 2—Drafted as a student soldier on December 9, 1943
December 19, 1943	The days go by fast. Yet each day feels very long . . . One cannot fight alone in contemporary wars. Each must become a cog for the wheel . . . Just because I acutely feel that the war is Totalkrieg (total war), I have to approve every activity as necessary.	One cannot fight alone in contemporary wars	3
December 25, 1943	Resolutely I must keep my diary. But Geist (spirit) must be frei (free). Since we strive to have Freiheit des Geistes (freedom of spirit), we feel we are beschrankt (controlled). In order to be the Trager (someone who shoulders responsibility) for the protection of the country, one must have a firm conviction for [the idea] pro patria mori [to die for one’s country], build one’s physical strength and master the technical skills.	We feel we are controlled	4
January 1, 1944	. . . Not looking at ten or a hundred years from now and closing our eyes from the distant future, we must anticipate their arrival and thus burn all our energy for our goals at the moment . . . Not for the apotheosis of history, but for the realization of world history, we must sacrifice ourselves for its momentary intention. Is it that history needs the invisible “carriers of sacrifice”?	Anticipating their arrival and sacrificing ourselves	4
January 3, 1944	I do not avoid sacrifice. I do not refuse the sacrifice of my self. However, I cannot tolerate the reduction of the self to nothingness in the process. I cannot approve it. Martyrdom or sacrifice must be done at the height of self-realization. Sacrifice at the end of self-annihilation, the dissolving of the self to nothingness, has no meaning whatsoever.	Sacrificing at the end of self-annihilation is meaningless	11
January 23, 1944	. . . All of us are pessimistic about the possibility of returning home. If I cannot go home and if I cannot get out of this navy life, I will go insane . . . At the moment, I really want to read books. In this condition, there is no way I can fight in the war. Death is, for me, coup de theatre (an unexpected event) . . . I have no passion. Loss of self in indifference. I don’t care what happens any more. The most painful and unbearable feeling comes from this life of forced indifference, a life in which we bump into a brick wall even as we walk one step . . . The hard part is not death, but to live. At the height of life, life is terminated, the curtain goes down. Maybe it is splendid. After the climax the messenger of death arrives without notice. This is a splendid scenario. But, it is unbearably miserable if one dies after a life in which one cannot devote onself to one’s task and one cannot express oneself.	All of us are pessimistic about possibility of returning home	5, 11
Time 3—Became scout pilot in January 28, 1944
February 6, 1944	How I was stirred by patriotism during my days at the university. We felt the tension when we were coming to the point of no return. Now, it is quite the opposite. I have no more passion. The military kills passion and transforms people, making them indifferent, turning them into cogs that turn a wheel mechanically.	Military kills passion	2
April 2, 1944	I pray that this life in the military will end as soon as possible. But, when we listen to the Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and the emperor’s proclamation on the Greater Asian War, I feel some lofty inspiration.	Praying that military will end soon	12
April 18, 1944	Author’s context: When he was going out on leave carrying Customs and Lives in Sakhalin (Karafuto Fubutsusho), a book by Taniuchi Rakubun, he was stopped, and his privilege of leaving the base was revoked. He writes: “The military law is an ethos that forces an individual to be a part of a machine.”	Military law forces an individual to be a part of a machine	9
May 1, 1944	. . . that to die for the country is to live through death is far from our feeling. The military kills one’s passion. We move according to the military rule, only . . . Although I conform to the military on the surface, in my mind my will to move forward has disappeared. What motivates my action is neither Patriotismus (patriotism) nor the inner will, but a wish not to make waves.	Military kills one’s passion	9
May 19, 1944	I am drawn to the issues of loneliness, prayer, indebtedness and social responsibility, but not Liebe (love), which to me is too remote at this time. I know there is a saying which probably refers to Leben (life) symbolized by young cherry blossoms [which fall beautifully after a short life]. But I don’t like that sort of “purity” of falling without hesitation. A human should not die easily.	Love is too remote at this time	11
May 22, 1944	In my opinion, to die right now is to do so without intervention. In other words, to die at this moment is an obligation imposed by history.	Dying now is an obligation	4
May 23, 1944	There is very little possibility that I will return home alive. No, no possibility whatsoever. Even more so, there is no possibility to use foreign languages. However, even now I have not given up my quest for an answer to “What does Europe stand for?” and am still determined to pursue it. My Lebensprobleme (lifetime task) is to understand the nature of European societies and European social sciences, which arose from those societies.	Have not given up his lifetime task	6
May 31, 1944	What if I get a day off and can go home? What a feeling it would be to read aloud the books in German! . . . What I want most is to study foreign languages—English, German and French.	Wants to leave the military and go home	5
June 16, 1944	Air raid on Saipan, Tenian Island and the Bonin Islands. The situation is tense indeed. But, for me it is all right for Japan to be destroyed. IT is too tedious just to wait . . . Historical necessity led to the crisis of our people. We rise to defend our people and the land we love.	Japan is being destroyed	2
June 25, 1944	On the base, reading books became prohibited. What are they trying to do by issuing such a stupid prohibition? It only exposes their stupidity.	Reading books became prohibited	3
July 14, 1944	I am finished with my diary. It is the first Frucht (fruit) of my impoverished spiritual life. Confusion and chaos only. Moi, cette confusion et anarchie, c'est moi—Me, confusion and chaos, that is me. What attract me are questions about the nature of modern society, its European characteristics, Japan’s modernization, and Russia’ modernization . . . To live or to die—we don’t know” . . . In this diary, I exposed my weaknesses. This miserable human, in its entirety, is portrayed in the diary. The writing of the diary was a way of finding meaning for me, as I am trying not to be swept away by the vertigoes of the time and trying to live aktiv (actively). I think that a most suitable life for me is to walk along the streets of Moscow with a hunting cap over my head, study Weltpolitik (international politics) and Weltwirtschaft (international economics) at the Bibliothek, or engage in theoretical analysis of the directions which Japan should take. If I live, I shall accomplish this. I I die, well, it will turn out to be just a dream. I should like to think of this diary as Chapter 1 of the record of a human being with only a big dream who, without finding a solution, tried his best to achieve his dream.	To live or die, we don’t know	10, 11
Time 4—Random thoughts in 1945, undated
June 1945	Author’s words: At one of the last meetings of the two brothers in June 1945, Tadao told his elder brother: “All finished. No more hope.”	No more hope	4
Undated in 1945	Author’s words: A letter to his sweetheart . . . Diary entry: “You are a beautiful human being. You are too clever to be my friend. Your mind and every move of your body are so ‘refined’ [English word in Japanese transliteration]. Why should a man like me deserve the interest of someone so Mannigfaltigkeit [sic] (talented in many ways)? Your affectionate manner of late—ah, it feels like a dream, too fortunate for me to be true. I love you . . . Love tortures the person in love. But, my love, the pain of love is happiness itself. As Rilke says, illness is itself happiness . . . .Friendship is to devote one’s soul and body, without expectations of return, knowing that love is painful.”	His sweetheart is too clever to be his friend	1
Undated in 1945	Author’s words: This is a long transcript titled “Finale” expressing his feeling of desperation . . . .Transcript: All that existed in the past is falling down and being swept away. As all the authorities and the orders are sinking into chaos, the images of those who met me in the past vanish without a trace. Ah, the Past. It is fading away like a shooting star . . . .Collapse! Japan is following the road to its destruction. We are heading toward the Todesmeer (sea of death). Those who struggle—it is hopeless . . . .Japan of the past will be destroyed. Destruction, what a sweet project. Decadence! Withering of a comfortable life. Bobbing and sinking. You—you are alive only by the eroticism of death.	It will be the end of Japan	4

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Appendix M.

Participant 3, Takushima Norimitsu, Coping Strategies Tallied.

Participant 3—Takushima Norimitsu
Coping number	Number of times
Time 1—Before being drafted
2	6/23
3	2/23
4	5/23
5	2/23
6	3/23
7	2/23
8	2/23
9	1/23
12	3/23
Time 2—Drafted into Imperial Navy in September 1943
1	1/29
3	1/29
4	7/29
5	3/29
6	2/29
7	2/29
8	4/29
9	2/29
10	3/29
11	1/29
12	3/29
13	1/29

Note. See Appendix N for full analysis.

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Appendix N.

Participant 3, Takushima Norimitsu’s, Diary Entries at Two Timeframes, Time 1 Before He Was Drafted and Time 2 While He Was Drafted Into the Imperial Navy (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006).

Participant 3—Takushima Norimitsu
Date	Diary entry	Problem	Coping number
Time 1—Before being drafted
January 1, 1940	I must begin a new stage for life and aim at self-improvement. When I was born, my father had a dream in which a goddess was casting light on a fading star in the dark blue sky at night. My father put the character for “light” in my name.	Must begin a new stage for life	6
January 1, 1940	Thus, since birth, I have breathed my father’s dream and nurtured Romanticism in my heart. Hopefully, I remain free from illnesses . . . .And I pray for a beautiful coexistence of reason and emotion.	Praying for coexistence of reason and emotion	12
January 2, 1940	Don Juan (someone from the past in his dream) tells him: You might as well go back [to the real world]. Coming here clad in the clothes from this world is like asking for disappointment. Look, Don Juan is clad in a medieval armor, that is, he is wearing the past. You are wearing reality, the present.	Have to go back to the real world	2
January 2, 1940	Author’s context: Takushima came looking for an ideal woman. But Takushima tells Don Juan that there was another reason . . . .Diary entry: You, who do not wear reality, may not understand. But, our reality is very dark. The only freedom allowed to us is to visit here every now and then in order to forget reality . . .	A different reality	2
January 3, 1940 to January 5, 1940	“Death is an inevitable absolute order.” Author’s words: This is the first sentence in the diary of January 5, revealing the real meaning of his dream world involving Don Juan which was written over course of two days. On one hand, it indicates that he felt the imminence of death as early as 1940. On the other, it expresses the influence of Romanticism, as is evident in the one-sentence entry for January 5. His entry: “If one loves art and nature, he is extremely fortunate.”	Death is inevitable	4
January 12, 1940	In his dream (Reverie): A woman quietly crept into my room. Herb lack hair, bundled together, pressed against my shoulder, her half-open lips burning with flames for indolent pleasure, and the ray of love took residence in the utter oblivion of all things. Her beautiful eyes were moist with eternal life. Ah, the woman in my reverie. Whence have you come? . . . .The night is over. Your reverie has disappeared and the loneliness of reality grips my empty heart.	Leaving to his dream world	2
February 7, 1940	The month of January has passed. I feel a new emotion in my heart. Romanticism, which used to be the spring of my heart, has started to raise its head again. It is a spring in the stillness of the night. It never becomes empty no matter how much we draw water. Halfway through, I returned to reality, since reality was a new world to me. But my own nature did not allow me to stay there. I will now return to the garden of a distant dream, but will keep my clothes of reality on.	Reality is a new world to him	5
February 15, 1940	I have been able to transform my personal quest for love into an intellectual pursuit of beauty. Although philosophers may not like it, I will call it a romantic search for truth. My love is no longer a maiden on this earth, but a maiden wrapped in eternal mystery. She smiles at suitors who fall at her feet with her smile as their only consolation. I might join the ranks and become a martyr. People lose their mind over the mysterious smile of Mona Lisa . . . .It looks like Romanticism is my religion.	Personal quest/pursuit of beauty	12
April 3, 1940	Pray for the great spirit of Vita Nuova. I shall turn my gaze toward the beauty of great and lofty nature. Listen to the sound of a bell tolling for the blessed. Listen to the sound of the feathers of white doves flying in the sky. Then, the garden of happiness and love will be open to you. Free yourself from the shackles and pray for eternal freedom.	Praying to the great spirit for the beauty of great and lofty nature	12
May 20, 1940	My feeling, which I thought was love, is gone, it seems. I am, after all, alone. I cannot be proud of the past and cannot believe in the present. Only hope for the future is shining over my head like a star with infinite truth and passion. Baudelaire declared love secular and base . . . .As Rousseau said, “I feel before I think.” I trust and respect intuition.	Feeling of love is gone	2
July 3, 1940	I feel lonely without the Cape jasmine (flower without voice). Mother cut a white Cape jasmine blossom and put it near my pillow in a vase. Sweet fragrance of a story lingers. The rose-colored sky. All natural phenomena are ready to wind down from the day’s vigorous activities to a quiet time. It is dusk—something similar to a majestic ceremony.	Lonely without a Cape jasmine	8
July 27, 1940	Author’s context: He meets Yayeko and falls in love and repeatedly expresses his opposition to nationalism . . . he realizes that he must give up on Romanticism and all it stands for: “I cannot think of my country before I think about myself, because I am not such a purist or a patriot.”	Has to think about himself before thinking about country	4
July 28, 1940	Japanese are very sentimental. It is quite convenient for the dictators. The idea that one is patriotic and thus would sacrifice oneself is a thought for the stupid masses. It is a type of narcissistic mania . . . .I advocate free contacts and exchange among the peoples of the world. I hate the rise of nationalism . . . .According to my view, the nation takes second place to individuals, but in reality individuals are completely ignored. The nation now takes absolute control over individuals. Turning around 180 degrees from the Romantic to the Realist, I am looking at the moon and smiling.	Idea that one is patriotic and would sacrifice oneself	4
August 5, 1940	Young people’s thought processes are based on the celebration, hope and anger of youth. Therefore, we are allowed to have a vision which is divorced from reality. When the youthful imagination is coldly destroyed, youth must face reality. Then, our memory becomes painful.	Young people’s thought processes are based on celebration, hope, and anger of youth	2
August 9, 1940	Love—so far away. It sounds like an illusion from the past. Perhaps when I encounter beauty, I may be reminded of it again.	Love is far away	2
August 18, 1940	Tonight the full moon is laughing in the sky, unaware that it will be hidden [by the clouds]. It is a chilling reminder, because I love culture and peace. But is my life dedicated to struggle against the current in which we witness the rise of nationalism, which promises the utmost happiness? Although I am not in principle opposed to any current, I find myself dissatisfied with the “national spirit,” which completely lacks logic.	Is my life dedicated to struggle against the current in which we witness the rise of nationalism, which promises the utmost happiness?	9
August 18, 1940	Oh, France. The friend of culture. I won’t even extend my sympathy for your military defeat. I send my praise for the great culture which military power cannot destroy. The French—you have been loved as the friend of cosmopolitanism.	French’s military defeat	7
August 27, 1940	I told my mother about my stomachache. She gently rubbed my back for a long time. I told her that she had done so long enough, but she said, “Don’t worry. Try to fall asleep as soon as possible.” She kept rubbing my back gently. I dislike sentimentalism, but I was very touched by her love. I could not fall asleep. The clock struck 2:00 AM. I lay still and mother left quietly, thinking I was asleep. I wanted to see her very badly and opened my eyes very slightly to see her leave the room. Mother lived only to raise her eight children.	Having a stomachache	6, 8
January 23, 1941	“The twentieth century is the age of Romanticism”—what a lovely sound this statement has. This is the century of warfare, and most of us must find comfort in being told that the purpose of the war is couched in the language of beautiful Romanticism. The feeling involved in self-sacrifice for one’s dream, ideal, and beauty is akin to the longing for a maiden at far distance. The twentieth century is the century we should love. Before one caresses the hair, eyes and lips of a maiden, one falls in love with her image in its entirety. We should first fall in love with the image of a nation.	Purpose of the war is couched in language of beautiful Romanticism	3
January 27, 1941	Unwittingly, I stepped into a void in my thought. I had been fearing it. And I had tried to escape from this condition. Yet I feel I am losing the battle. Meaninglessly, I am painting my life with hypocrisy. I feel that I am moving away from my own self, no longer being able to feel myself. It is not certain that I am a young man who is left behind by the times only to die like a shriveled-up leaf.	Trying to avoid death	5
January 27, 1941	I must live. Strong and vigorously. And I must respect my emotions. But, alas, I no longer feel emotions. I have reached the end—only a step before the final collapse of rationality, gasping for air to regain hope for life. Tonight I chain my neck in order to remind myself of my own vow. Since I do not believe in God, I vow to myself.	Gasping for air to regain hope for life	3, 4
July 20, 1943	Author’s context: At that time, he was not sure whether he would be drafted, and thus he was searching for an alternative to military service by applying for a particular position with the railroad. As mandated, he took an examination for the navy, hoping for a noncombatant position as an accountant. Unfortunately, the examination showed him to be qualified to be a pilot. “I just received two letters from you, Father. Thank you . . . .How is mother? Since it is very hot, I am very concerned about her condition . . . .I went to the branch of the Western Railroad in order to take the examination for the job, but no one showed up. But I know that I would get the job without taking the examination . . . .No report from the navy. But, judging from the report to our friend Yoshizaki, . . . .I suspect that I would not get the accounting job at the navy. I had no intention of applying for the pilot’s position. But the examinations for the accountant and the pilot were combined, and they marked me as qualified for flying.”	Trying to find alternative jobs	6
July 20, 1943	During the past year, or only within the past couple of months, I have had to face being drafted and to search for a job at the same time, and I feel the strong currents of this period . . . .At times I feel that whatever I do is only half-baked. Perhaps by joining in the war, I would feel more decisive both in my action and thoughts. My best to my mother.	Having to face being drafted and to search for a job	4, 7
Time 2—Drafted into Imperial Navy in September 1943
September 22, 1943; February 12, 1944; February 23, 1944	Author’ words: In other letters, he asked his younger brothers to accompany their father on a visit to him.	Helping father on a visit to him	6
Undated during Naval Air Base	Author’s context: Following poem, written while stationed at the Demizu Naval Air Base, expressing grief at death of his mother. “Day by day, the color of autumn is deepening. Mother’s illness became grave as the days went by. Gazing at her children, she withered like a leaf under frost and passed away. Sadness belongs to the past, and joy will return to life—I tried to convince myself. But the sadness of the past haunts me today.”	Mother’s illness became grave as the days went by	11
Undated and at same time as above, during Naval Air Base	Author’s context: Poem cited above is followed by a copy of a letter from his mother that he had received the previous year, when the fragrance of summer filled the air. “This is the season for the hydrangea, telling us that your visit home is approaching. Your grandmother and I are anxiously waiting for you. As I am writing this letter, I glance at the yard and notice that the flower clusters of the hydrangea are bending down to the ground. I put on clogs and hurry to the flower. I am reminded of you when you were little. When you were three or four, I cut a white cluster for you. When you got up the next morning, you found that the petals had turned purple, and some petals had fallen. You began to cry as if you had caught on fire; you thought someone had exchanged the hydrnagea with some other flower. I was at my wits’ end and did not know what to do at the time. Now, as I look at the yard, all the petals have changed color to form purple clouds. I realized how intriguing this flower is.”	The flowers turning colors	8
March 20, 1944	Today is my birthday. I had forgotten it completely. What did I do on my last birthday? Mother was still healthy. At that time, Mother was looking forward to her planned trip to Tokyo to see me. Indeed, “Year after year the same flowers bloom, whereas people are not the same.” For my birthday, Mother always prepared something special, such as my favorite sweets (an'man) or rice with beans. Remembering the past birthdays, I feel so lonely. Her tender feelings—no one else has such love. Why did I not take care of her better? I am filled with deep regrets. I feel sorry for m little brothers, who are unable to have the splendid childhood I had. My mother never leaves my mind, whenever I remember anything of my past. Mother, Mother, Mother. No matter how old one gets, the most important figure in life is one’s mother.	Forgotten his own birthday and thinking about past birthdays	4
March 21, 1944	Author’s context: He wrote a letter to Yayeko, and he deliberately suppresses his feelings for her. “Last evening, I received your letter, in which you sounded in very good spirits. I was very pleased to receive the letter . . . .In my present life, I should not leave room for thoughts of such matters as love. In my daily life, filled with tension, any romantic thoughts or emotions are jettisoned like dirt scattered in all directions by rapidly turning wheels. The only time I can communicate with you is when I write my diary. I once promised you that I would leave my innermost thoughts with you. I have not had psychological room to do so. But, do believe my sincerity—I have not forgotten my promise to you.”	Leaving room for thoughts for Yayeko	1
March 21, 1944	Second paragraph of the letter above: “ . . . .Now the only way to express my feelings to you is to write them down in my diary. My future is utterly uncertain. As Andre Gide said, the future belongs to God’s jurisdiction. I cannot predict my own future. I am I, and yet I am no longer I. Since you are so bright, I believe you understand what I say. I love you, but my love at present must extend beyond you to Japan and to the Japanese people, including you.”	Hopefully she understands that he cannot predict his own future	4
March 21, 1944	Continuation of letter above: “Despite these words, I am far from falling into the trap of jingoism. I have simply transformed my concerns for my country during the university days into love of my country. I think I told you this. Perhaps I will not see you again—perhaps, never.”	He might not see her ever again	4
March 21, 1944	Continuation of letter above: “I am pleased that I ask you to choose Cape jasmine as the offering [to me after death]. My mother loved that flower, too . . . ”	Finding offering when he dies	8
March 21, 1944	Author’s context: Takushima wrote frequently to his two youngest brothers, who remained at home with their father and older sisters, titled “To my darling little brothers.” The lawn grass which endured the cold winter is now beginning to bud with green leaves. The fragrance of green leaves symbolizes hope and youth. Your mother loved the color green. The warm sweaters she bought for me were often green. The color of green always reminds me of Mother. When you two grow up and wish to recall fond memories of Mother, gaze at green leaves covering the trees. Let me write down for you how Mother loved you. In a strict household, she never had a moment to relax. I remember Mother was always working very hard, doing innumerable household chores. This type of life is a tradition in Kyushu. Given the shackles of old feudalistic customs that honor men and look down on women, it was rare that she ate dinner with us. I am quite disappointed that I cannot recall a happy family gathering with her over dinner. Even though she had to do so many things around the house, she never ever made you wear torn clothes or underwear or damaged shoes. Tears well up in my eyes when I think how she bought all the supplies of clothing for you two, even after her illness progressed, so that you would not be in trouble [after her death].	How much Mother loved them	10
March 30, 1944	Author’s context: Letter to Yayeko: “Thank you for your response. I am pleased to learn that you are in good spirits. It sounds like Tokyo has changed a great deal. Many changes in society necessitated by the war on which our nation’s fate depends are now acutely felt. We, the soldiers, and you, too, must march toward this single goal. At times like this, concepts and other abstract thoughts are almost meaningless to us. They are like a beautiful, expensive plate which makes food visually appealing; food of one hundred calories is still only a hundred calories, even on a beautiful plate.”	Necessary changes by the war	4
March 30, 1944	Continuation of letter to Yayeko: “If it becomes possible for you to live in peace, indeed my life may be sacrificed . . . .I am just a very average person and do not hope to achieve honor through my death . . . .If my action contributes to building your happy and peaceful life, I can find meaning in all the unhappiness that I am enduring now.”	Do not mind sacrificing for Yayeko	7
April 2, 1944	. . . Mother used to call me whenever she encountered beautiful scenery: “Why don’t you come out? It is just beautiful.” I just felt as if she called me, as she used to. Even after she married my father and lived in the city, Mother never lost the innocence of a farmer. I remember the time when I was a little child and went with my mother to my mother’s house, just as quiet but even more isolated than this one. At night, it was unbelievably scar, with the gushing sound of a mountain torrent hitting rocks and the sound of owls howling. My mother’s bosom was the place for my escape. A shooting star went over the river. It was a cold, pale star. The world around me is going through drastic changes. I try to suppress egotism and uphold my principles.	World around me going through drastic changes	3
April 2, 1944	Author’s context: Takushima wrote to his youngest brothers, Noriharu and Norimasa, offering some advice. “Last Sunday Setsuyo and Kazu'e [his sisters] came to visit me. I am pleased and relieved to hear that they are really working hard, taking care of the household. According to them Noriharu is quite rambunctious. It is good for a boy to be so. I hope the two of you grow up free of worries. I heard that Norimasa has not forgotten the practice of folding his clothes every night before he goes to bed. You are a good boy. A very good boy. Do not ever forget your mother’s teachings on good upbringing. I am truly in sympathy with your feelings when you felt that the new mother had to be the same as the one in the photo [their deceased mother]. I feel for you. I don’t know if I can ever go home again. How helpless I feel that I can only pray for good luck for your future.”	Not sure if he can ever go home again	13
April 27, 1944	It is difficult to hope for the glory of returning from the battlefield. Believing that a shortcut to eternity is to perish as a dew drop on the battlefield, and not having any guarantee of being alive the next day, it is only too human to take some drink, become intoxicated, and sing songs with passion. No one could laugh at such behavior.	Difficult to hope for glory of returning from battlefield	5
May 11, 1944	Golden dusk after the rain. Grape-colored mountain peaks in late spring are clothed in white clouds. When she was still alive, whenever I longed for my mother, I used to overcome the feeling by envisioning my mother. I cannot bear the thought that she will never return no matter how much I call for her and want to be spoiled by her. The only time when I want to believe in the soul of a deceased person is when I dream of her. With my father’s remarriage getting closer, I pray that my mother’s soul will be left undisturbed, without the knowledge of what is happening.	Father is remarrying	12
June 8, 1944	Author’s context: Letter to His Younger Sister. “Kazu'e, I feel sorry that you, when you are so young, must worry about so many things. I am sure you are worrying about me. Although I have not told anyone, when I go to the war, I am prepared not to return alive. I will forget all my thoughts from the past and join my mother without incurring disgrace.”	Sister probably worrying about him	4
June 11, 1944	New seedlings of rice plants have come out and cover the water in the paddy, creating beautiful reflections in the sunset. A peaceful scene. Children called for me from a distance—so far away that I could not really see their faces. When I turned around to look for them, they all bowed down toward me [in respect to a soldier heading for the front]. How innocent they are! I cannot be moved to patriotism without a very realistic motivation. But, yes, for these children.	Peaceful scene with children calling to him	8
June 12, 1944	Yesterday I encountered a most delightful event. The white flower of Cape jasmine! I remember the time when I was sick at the height of summer. Every day Mother brought the flower to my bedside. I was sick for a long time—two months. And last year, when my mother was sick, I put the white flower in a vase at her bedside. The flower faithfully kept its fragrance for some time. This year, in this southern region far away from home, the flower is blooming for me.	When he was sick or when his mother was sick	8, 9
June 13, 1944	Author’s context: Letter to Yayeko. “You must be anxiously waiting for my letter. I have been feeling a heavy responsibility to answer your letter. Let me tell you for sure—I loved you. And I still love you now. Yet today something more important than you alone occupies my mind, that is, the country where gentle maidens like you live. I was immensely moved by the children who called to me from afar in the quiet dusk in the paddy field. They bowed toward me, and I cannot forget them. If you realized that this feeling is stronger than my love toward you, you would be quite upset. No, I don’t think you would be. You would understand my feeling. For those innocent children, I would not mind sacrificing my life.”	Something more important than Yayeko occupied his mind	4
June 16, 1944	Author’s context: After discussing Hobbes and Hegel, Takushima begins to write as if addressing Yayeko. “For our nation, enormously poor in material resources, the last [form of] capital is the body. When I think in this way, I forget about you. It must make you feel quite unhappy that my thoughts are so involved in this way, rather than focusing on you. I have no confidence that I can make you happy in the future. I replaced my love for you with my love for my country.”	Forgetting about Yayeko	10
June 16, 1944	Strolling in the dusk with my comrades, we dream of beautiful pastures and orchards. It is marvelous that I can dream of a beautiful utopia when the world is going through vertigoes. I am happy to consider myself to be fighting to achieve the harmony of this universe. I am pleased and happy to provide good and beautiful reasons for my action—our sacrifice.	Happy to be fighting to achieve the harmony of universe	7
June 30, 1944	The other day, Lieutenant (Junior Grade) Nakayama and seven others on the reconnaissance plane disappeared. I pray these seven souls may rest in peace. Today another plane with seven soldiers went up in smoke right after they took off. All except one survived. Several mechanical problems were involved, although the direct cause was the loss of speed.	Reconnaissance plane disappeared	12
June 30, 1944	The Japanese imperial government declared that it will not deal with the Chinese government in Chungking [the wartime capital of China, to which Chiang Kai-shek was forced to move]. I feel a heavy weight in my heart. Today the Japanese people are not allowed freedom of speech and we can not publicly express our criticism. However, I must say that the statement is quite stupid; it is embarrassing for a nation to issue such a statement. But no one would venture to voice his opinion. The Japanese people do not even have access to enough information to know the facts, since we have been forced to accept the suppression of public opinion with patience and resignation. This is just one example of the routines and demagoguery that have become the moving forces of our society. It is the sin committed by journalism, which should have supported public opinion. It is also the sin committed by the state authority, which has suppressed freedom of speech . . . .We need a new political education. Alas, however, it is too late now. I hope the statement by the government will not be accompanied by military action . . . .Let me state it once more. We are going to meet our fate led by the cold will of the government. I shall not lose my pride until the end. I will not lose my passion and hope until the end . . . .There is one ideal—freedom.	Japanese people are not allowed freedom of speech	9
July 18, 1944	Author’s context: Long letter to Yayeko. “To Yayeko: I am not surprised by the way we are losing the war. I had anticipated it every since my university days. I fully expected the American forces to come very close to us. The Japanese have overestimated their own strength and underestimated that of the Americans . . . .Where is Japan going? Is it going to be a clever fox, rather than a wild boar recklessly dashing forward? Now survival is the main problem, rather than loyalty to the country. Diplomatic negotiations would perhaps take place day and night.”	Where is Japan going?	6
July 18, 1944	If so, why must we fight? We no longer have any purpose for fighting. I do not hesitate to sacrifice my life for the country. What is most painful is to think about the future of my beloved ones. When I heard the news of Saipan, I felt pain in my heart at having to face the cold reality. No matter what happens, I must prevent you people from another tragedy like the one on Saipan.	Why must we fight?	4
July 24, 1944	Author’s context: Letter to his sweetheart. “I have been thinking of you quite frequently. I dream of you walking by, wearing a pale blue dress, carrying a parasol. At these times my mind starts to wander searching for the lost times. But the cold and cruel will [of the government] immediately erases my dreams . . . .I pray that my beliefs and predictions prove to be wrong. I hope to confirm my conviction that the ultimate victory is won by spiritual strength, not by material goods . . . .When cherished memories and passionate love are both gone, I still feel the pain of loneliness for not having someone to call ‘Mother’. Forgive me, Yayeko—when I think of my mother, I forget about you.”	Mind starting to wander searching for lost times	12
August 17, 1944	I received your letter, I think, yesterday. You had told me that you would not write to me any more . . . .You tell me that you wish to come here to visit me. But, I prefer being alone as I am now. If you came I could not forget you, or I fear that you might find me not as good as you think. I prefer leaving everything as it is and hope no stone will be cast into a peaceful spring. I live in my imagination and fondly recall you in your pale blue dress.	Yayeko wanted to visit him	5
September 5, 1944	Author’s context: Takushima broke his leg and could not go on leave. He did not even feel like reading. “It was a deserted hospital in the countryside. I don’t why I went there. I met my mother. I was shocked but pleased to find my mother alive there. I could not believe it. I got close to my mother and asked, ‘Are you alive?’ Mother replied, ‘Look at me. I am alive.’ Mother had lost some weight. I lay next to her and was able feel her soft skin. I thought to myself: ‘It is not true that she is sick; look, her body is so warm, soft and beautiful.’ Mother thought I was not feeling well and made some medicine for me. Alas, it was a dream. But it is all right, since I was able to see her again.”	Being in the hospital and seeing his mother	5
October 15, 1944	The news of the death of my comrade Shoda was a great blow to my heart . . . .He was idealistic and more patriotic than most of us. He still lives in my heart. His navy uniform and other personal belonging he entrusted to me are still in my room. I had kept hoping that the might have drifted onto an island in the South Pacific. But the news that his plane was shot down terminated that dream. Lieutenant Yuta, too, died, when his plane plunged into a mountain [it is not clear whether it was an accident or an intentional act]. I am very sorry to have lost these two close comrades. But to have met the proper death must have been quite satisfactory for them as males.	News of comrades dying	10

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Appendix O.

Participant 4, Matsunaga Shigeo, Coping Strategies Tallied.

Participant 4—Matsunaga Shigeo
Time 1—Undated between October 15, 1938 when we entered the army, and November 28, 1938 when he died
Coping number	Number of times
3	3/7
4	1/7
6	1/7
9	1/7
12	1/7

Note. See Appendix P for full analysis.

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Appendix P.

Participant 4, Matsunaga Shigeo, Diary Entries at One Timeframe, Time 1 From Entering Army Till Death (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006).

Participant 4—Matsunaga Shigeo
Time 1—Undated between October 15, 1938 when we entered the army, and November 28, 1938 when he died
Date	Diary entry	Problem	Coping number
Undated between October 15, 1937 (when he entered the army) and November 28, 1938 (when he died)	While the summer heat is still on the street, we hear “Banzai” (Hail) on the street every day. “You must be anxious to go [to war]” people [say]. I remain silent, with a faint smile.	Anxious over going to war?	3
Undated between October 15, 1937 (when he entered the army) and November 28, 1938 (when he died)	I consider religion only as the government’s strategy. Accepting the sincerity of those who contributed to the thousand-knot sash, I burned it to ashes before going to the front. The only “amulet” for student soldiers is their soul, every aspiring to learn.	Religion is only a government’s strategy	12
Undated between October 15, 1937 (when he entered the army) and November 28, 1938 (when he died)	We should crush both liberalism and egotism. They are products of the leisurely upper class, which ignores the necessity of life.	Upper class ignores necessity of life	6
Undated between October 15, 1937 (when he entered the army) and November 28, 1938 (when he died)	Practical reason rules the [other] soldiers. In order to protect themselves and their famil[lies], the obey the authority of the imperial nation.	Need to protect themselves and their families	9
Undated between October 15, 1937 (when he entered the army) and November 28, 1938 (when he died)	The course Germany took may teach some things to Japan. But I am against the idea of Japan following the path of Germany.	Course Germany is taking may teach some things to Japan	3
Undated between October 15, 1937 (when he entered the army) and November 28, 1938 (when he died)	Poem, “Guynemer and Manfred”: . . . Guynemer was a bright youth . . . .Manfred was a carefree lad . . . .Both died eventually. But the war went on. Their death had no impact. Either on the war or on their country. Should I bear the pain of Guynemer, Or should I go along like a sunny Manfred? Either way, there is little difference [between the two paths one might take]. To myself or to humanity at large.	Which way should I go?	4
Undated between October 15, 1937 (when he entered the army) and November 28, 1938 (when he died)	Poem, “A Farewell Song to the Young Chinese Boy”: Farewell, my dear friend; we enjoyed each other for three days. Although I wish to stay with you forever, Autumn is calling me. Tomorrow we will likely go up the river. I will sing in my heart, again and again, the song of the little lambs that you taught me. Come to think of it, our encounter was fortuitous. Just like the one in the poem by Po Chu-I. But our parting was even more painful than Po Chu-I's. Let us remain friends, forever and forever.	Good bye friend. Wish you stay with you forever	3

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Appendix Q.

Participant 5, Matsunaga Tatsuki, Coping Strategies Tallied.

Participant 5—Matsunaga Tatsuki
Coping number	Number of times
1	2/25
3	6/25
4	3/25
5	3/25
6	3/25
7	3/25
8	5/25
9	1/25
10	2/25
Time 2—Drafted by army at beginning of 1942
2	1/17
3	2/17
4	3/17
5	1/17
6	3/17
7	3/17
9	5/17
10	1/17
11	1/17

Note. See Appendix R for full analysis.

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Appendix R.

Participant 5, Matsunaga Tatsuki, Diary Entries at Two Timeframes, Time 1 Before He Was Drafted and Time 2 While He Was in the Army (Ohnuki-Tierney, 2006).

Participant 5—Matsunaga Tatsuki
Date	Diary entry	Problem	Coping number
Time 1—Before being drafted
January–August 1940	Resolution: There are two years before I enter the military. No matter what people say, the entrance into the military represents a type of death. I have to live now as best as I can.	Almost entering military	10
January–August 1940	In the meanwhile, my learning led me to seek something beyond poetry—society and culture in general, in which poems are composed. (This is the period when I was devouring Durkheim and works about him.) Poems of a small group of people, removed from reality, were of no interest to me. A number of disturbing events threw me out of society psychologically [he became alienated from society]. I spent my days idling in a world in which I had no more interest. At that time, I rediscovered the Shin-Kokinshu, while enjoying reading Dostoevsky and Shestov.	Disturbing events threw him out of society psychologically	5
April–November 1941	Mother has been working very hard to find me a “little wife.” There are many hints that Father and Mother are putting a great deal of thought into it. I wait to see how things develop without interfering. Recently Father ceased to be strict. He no longer scolds me if I sleep late or return home late. It is overwhelming to think of his love and concern for me. I also understand how concerned Mother is. I only wish Teichan were with us.	Parents working hard to find him a wife	9
April–November 1941	Yesterday as well as today, I wanted to talk to Kofumi [a woman at a café]. She said three times, “You must be afraid of the war,” but I did not answer. Indeed I am afraid of wars. But, above all, I am opposed to the war Japan is engaged in now. I don’t agree with their policy. There is something basically wrong with the government’s policy and the army’s military strategy.	Kofumi told him three times to be afraid of the war	3
April–November 1941	Even if the solitude of a beautiful spirit is violated, I shall try not to commit suicide.	Chance of solitude of beautiful spirit being violated	3
August 11, 1941	Author’s context: He fell in love with and married Ayako, a well-educated young woman. In his imagination, he had been longing intensely for a woman, whom he called Yukari after a young woman in The Tale of Genji. She was now replaced by Ayako, whom he affectionately calls “Ayapin,” “A-ko” and “my Yukari.” “For the first time I visit A-ko. Accompanied by Mother. I think she is too good for me. She deserves someone like Hans Hansen in Tonio Kroger, who is happy and enjoying life. That she will accompany me throughout my life—it is like a dream. I declare—from today, I affirm life. What a lovely sound in the phrase ‘to live’ . . . .[I] just think of A-ko, and I feel warmth in my heart. For the past few days, not a second has gone by without thinking of A-ko . . . .I used to say that love and marriage are different; the former is romantic and the latter is pragmatic. But it has changed 180 degrees, I declare—I am in love. A-ko—I love you and I will love you even more in the days to come.”	He doesn’t think he is good enough for her	7
August 16, 1941	At night again at Suikosha [a restaurant]. We spent some time in the garden . . . .I feel that I am loved. I won’t say a word. I just watch her. Just the two of us . . . .I restrained myself and did not ask when I can see her next, which I regret[ted] in the following days.	Didn’t say a word to her that he loves her	3
August 18, 1941	I no longer need literature . . . .I already have Yukari. Ayapin—when can we talk again forever! I wish I could see her tonight, but I am restraining myself. Shall I call her tomorrow? Why did I not ask her when I could see her again? From now on I should always make certain when our next date is. I waited all evening hoping she would call me on the phone, but no call.	He’s wondering when he should call her	3, 6
August 20, 1941	I love her more and more every day . . . .It is painful to control my passion. How I wish to embrace and kiss her. Words are of little use. Words are for teachers and friends. When we sit silently together and talk quietly—we need both.	He loves her more and more	3
September 7, 1941	Today I raise my white flag [of surrender to Ayako]. At 2 o'clock in the afternoon, you came with my father. Just the two of us spent the time in the room upstairs, first in the back of it and then mov[ing] toward the veranda, where until sunset we talked, feeling the autumn breeze, looking at the clouds in the sky. What a pleasure to be reassured of your youthful and rebellious character. We spent some time with Mother. Then Father called. We looked at the crimson sky over the vegetable garden. And, dinner together. Then, holding hands, we talked as I accompanied you back over the dark road. Then, I was invited into your house for a beer. Enough said. My love toward you is being intensified every moment. Perfect happiness.	He fell in love and surrendered to her	8
September 7, 1941	I call you “mon [sic] petite femme.” Or, shall I use “Frau”? Or femme dame? Or, epouse? What are you going to call me? I would like it best if you call me anata [a polite form of “you” in Japanese]. Perhaps you won’t be able to call me kimi [a colloquial masculine second-person pronoun, which can be used humorously by women]. Or, would you be able to use du or tu? As a reference term, you might refer me as mon mari. Although it sounds too gentle, I much prefer it to “hus” [the Japanese abbreviation of husband]. French is a beautiful language—“mari.”	What he thinks she should call him	1
Undated between September 7, 1941 – September 14, 1941	Ah, everything is beautiful and serene. I am confident that I can say on the day I die that the world I have seen was beautiful. Ayapin—it is you who gave me this beautiful world . . . .I wonder what you are thinking tonight. Are you feeling sorrow? Are you having intense feelings about leaving your maidenhood? Knowing your personality, I expect that you will be brave through this threshold almost unconsciously . . . .I hope you will be able to spend tonight peacefully. I will try my best to do so, too . . . .Tomorrow, and the day after. What is waiting for us? A long (or very short) life together. What fate [is] waiting for us? . . . .Ayapin—good night, sleep peacefully. So that you are not tired tomorrow. I too will bid farewell to my life alone and think about it in bed.	What does fate have for them?	5
Undated between September 7, 1941 – September 14, 1941	Through the process of preparation, I began to have a very unusual love toward Mother Yoshiko. I loved her before, but I began to have a deep respect toward her. The feeling is like that of a friendship. Mothers of this kind must be few and far between. I close this part of my diary with deep gratitude for Mother Yoshiko. When can I repay all that Father and Mother have done for me?	When can I repay all that Father and Mother have done for me?	4
December 21, 1941	I failed the [physical] examination for the Navy. When I think of my father’s disappointment, I feel like blaming my body.	Failed physical examination	4
January 8, 1942	Author’s context: Imaginary exchange with a friend considering death in the military. “Why don’t you let your imagination run wild? If you want to be alive and healthy and by being a model soldier and feel happy being buried among fruits in the southern Pacific, so be it. If you want to put up a protest, be hit [by your superior] and die, so be it. The end of the story.” How about this as my speech for being drafted?	Made speech for being drafted to friend	1
January 11, 1942	A quiet Sunday. The result of the examination for the navy reserve was posted. Everyone tries not to notice it [the fact that he failed] . . . .I feel relieved—it signals a longer time to enjoy freedom. I am no longer a nineteen year old youth who knows nothing about death.	People are trying not to notice that he failed his examination	7
January 20, 1942	Author’s context: He made a visit to the tomb of his birth mother, whom he called “Mother Midori,” with his stepmother, a male friend, and his wife. IT is customary in Japan to visit the tomb of the deceased on the anniversary of the day they died, and Matsunaga knew that he would not be able to visit her after going into the military. “This is the last day for Mother Midori. After going to school early, Mother, Akio, and we [my wife and I] went to her tomb. We offered daffodils, sweet peas and lily—all very gentle flowers. Afterwards we had lunch at Senbikiya, but things did not go well. Later I went to Zensenza to see Julien Duvivier's ‘The Great Waltz’ . . . .It was not as good as I had anticipated.”	Visiting tomb of his birth mother	5
January 20, 1942	That evening [the day she died] makes me tremble even now. There still was some snow on the ground that evening, too; the wind was piercing the body, and in the night sky stars looked as if they were falling. I had never before felt such powerful light from stars. That night, Shigeo and I embraced each other while crying. Until today, I thought I could comfort you most by keeping the home with Father and new Mother in beautiful harmony. I have believed that you did not want me to be a great man but a family man whom people love. But because of my shortcomings, I have caused sufferings to Father, Mother and Ayapin, whom you, Mother, would love dearly if you were alive. Last night and today—the last time for nihilism and pessimism, I vow. Mother Yoshiko and Ayapin inherited your struggle. But it was you who suffered most. Your suffering was hard to bear even for me, although I was very young. But you kept going. Your will for love and peace supported your worn-out body . . . .My first task is to prevent Mother and Ayako from the same sufferings/Our family must transcend that stage.	The day Mother died. Because of his shortcomings, he has caused suffering to Father, Mother, and Ayapin.	4, 6, 8
January 24, 1942	Author’s context: Written with awareness that their time together was coming to an end, addressed to Ayako. “Later in the afternoon, you wore a kimono. I bought for you a band for your watch at Hattori [a famous store on Ginza, the most fashionable shopping district even today] and a purse at Kuwabara. They are perhaps the last presents for you. I hope you love them and use them for a long time. You wanted a pair of shoes. I wanted to buy them for you, but I was not certain if I had enough money. Then we went to Emura [a restaurant] . . . .I was ecstatic . . . .What a warm and beautiful night. This should be the farewell party for me. I am too happy to write down [my thoughts].”	Last meetings with Ayako	7
January 26, 1942	At noon, I paid my last visits to my teachers at school . . . .In the afternoon, I finally had a very good dialogue with Mother at Minamicho. We talked about Christianity, death and friends.	Last visits	8
January 26, 1942	Then you played ballades by Shimizu followed by Mozart’s sonata. How beautiful it was. Our large guest parlor without heat. Two of us alone. Beautiful and well played melody. Your hands on the piano keyboard that produce such beautiful music. Mysterious serenity of composure in my mind. Today you understand me completely. Is there such a marvelous feeling? Perfection I had not known before. Happiness—quiet and beautiful.	Last meetings with Ayako	8
January 27, 1942	In the evening, I invited two friends and we discussed various topics, including “new feminism.” We talked about men’s role in enabling women to achieve full realization as human beings. We are not interested in politics, enlightenment movements, revolution, etc., but we wish to find our place in the home, seeing to it that our wives and children get a good education.	Meeting with two friends	8
January 28, 1942	With tears in your eyes, you could not say a world as I left you at home . . . .I went to school, resigned from the post of assistant professor, and handed over all the work to my successor . . . .At 10:00PM, finally we two could be alone . . . .Recently, you have stopped laughing, and it makes me feel lonely.	He was finishing the last things he needed to do, resigning	6
January 29, 1942	In the afternoon, I went to a concert with an invitation from Shimizu . . . .Music with poesy. Musicality . . . .I am reading your letter. Thank you for writing it. I won’t say anything now. I will leave you [for the military] quietly . . . .You said five years. But it is a long time, and I hope you keep maturing. Do grow intellectually . . . .It is important to be feminine, but I want you to be as intellectual as a man. I will return as I am now, since for five years my intellectual activity will be stopped.	Leaving for the military	10
January 30, 1942	I finished the third chapter of my Research on the Development of Shin-Kokin Waka-shu . . . .In the afternoon, I went to school to hand over my writing . . . .Perhaps it was better that I did not see Professor Orikuchi. When I returned home, there were so many people [who had come to bid him farewell] . . . .Finally we were alone at night. We squeezed our bodies together. You fell asleep—quiet and pure. Of course I did think “once more,” but I restrained myself.	Went to school to hand over writing	3
Time 2—Drafted by army at beginning of 1942
Organized the notes on February 1, 1943 (everything is after he has left home and entered the military)	Author’s context: A retrospective poem stands as the prologue of these notes. “We spent all of last year on the battlefield. I confess. I did nothing the whole year. My spirit was locked by the key [of the military]. My body only followed orders.”	Being in the military	9
Organized the notes on February 1, 1943 (everything is after he has left home and entered the military)	Continuation of the poem: The military must change its organization and atmosphere. From the very bottom. If the Japanese army is to achieve its glory. I as a soldier. Must shoulder responsibility well beyond what is assigned to me as a soldier.	Military must change its organization	4
Organized the notes on February 1, 1943 (everything is after he has left home and entered the military)	My pride would not allow me to write down the details of our daily life. A blasphemy against the sanctity of the Imperial Army is the way . . . .The army is the citadel of the feudal spirit . . . .Duties mean impossibilities and irrationalities. The military rules are products of deceptions and conveniences. For new soldiers, there is no human life to lead.	Army is the citadel of the feudal spirit	3
Organized the notes on February 1, 1943 (everything is after he has left home and entered the military)	Early summer in north China is unexpectedly green. Wheat and acacia are growing, while the air is filled with the songs of Chinese cuckoos . . . .Bullets are pleasant. At least they stir excitement, which pulls me taut, even with my completely exhausted nerves. Soldiers unite, leaving all other things aside . . . .The glory of winning a war, and the misery of losing one. As we retreat at night, we put our wounded soldiers on our shoulder and try to follow a road in the dark. We stop, even when we want to go forward. We sleep while walking. Suddenly, we fall down on the road. I find myself at least not allowing my gun to touch the dirt. Why so? But there is no time to even think why. We march forward, throwing all our soul and body into it.	Carrying wounded soldiers on our shoulders	9
Organized the notes on February 1, 1943 (everything is after he has left home and entered the military)	Until I can assert myself openly, I won’t write my true feelings, which will offend my superiors. Without raising fundamental questions, I won’t be able to write about our lives here.	Can’t write true feelings	3
Organized the notes on February 1, 1943 (everything is after he has left home and entered the military)	To return home is the only wish the soldiers have. They just want to go home, as if peace and pleasure still exist at home . . . .But come the day of battle, they meet their death instantly. Then suddenly all become Japanese “deities” . . . .With such ease they believe that they are brave soldiers to protect their country. They pride themselves in believing “No ancestral land without us.” It is just cheap sentimentalism . . . .By comforting themselves in this way, they are spared from regretting the waste of their youth.	The soldier’s only wish	7
Organized the notes on February 1, 1943 (everything is after he has left home and entered the military)	But why have I lost my passion altogether? Since I entered the army a year ago, there has been nothing that moves me . . . .It was an amazingly eventful year. Suicides of my comrades, showers of bullets, questioning with torture, finally smearing my gun and sword with blood—yet I remained completely insensitive, as if I am a fool. What I write here is what I should be ashamed of. They all feel like things of another world . . . .This has been true since that dreadful day in the fall of 1939—the day my brother died. Since that time I have been living on another planet and I lost all interest in life . . . .In truth, here [on the base] the world of the dead is much closer than the homeland. I increasingly lost interest in this world and began to brush with death and risk encounters with the dead . . . .What nihilism! I trained myself to wear a mask. But in order to reach this state, I had to battle my self-hatred.	Passionless?	2
Between May and September 1943 while stationed in China	It has been a month since I was made a probationary officer . . . .I want to make myself clear here in case I fall [die]—as advice for those who succeed me after I fall. I was forced without choice to go through the examination to be a candidate to be an officer . . . .Yet, the official line is that I volunteered.	Made a probationary officer	9
Between May and September 1943 while stationed in China	In the army, there is an absolute line between enlisted men and officers . . . .Now I am required to change my policy. I have to establish my position in the army and must work to contribute to this society called “Army.” Until now, I did my best “not to kill.” From now on, I must strive to “kill.” I used to think I wanted to return alive no matter what . . . .Now I must die . . . .It is not forgivable for officers to survive when enlisted men die. Now I won’t expect to return alive. Of course, I thought so at the time I was drafted, but it was more passive. Today, I [actively] seek my death, never to return alive.	Need to change his policy	4, 6
Between May and September 1943 while stationed in China	Now the testament I wrote to Yukari is no longer sufficient. I must now convince her that she will not see me ever again and establish her daily life accordingly. I must have her give up the hope of my return . . . .If I can convince her now, rather than waiting until I die, I will feel I succeeded. If I die—No, I will die. You will no longer have me. Now I no longer belong to you. You only had me as I was before February of last year . . . .Your life with Father and Mother no longer has any connection with my life on the Asian continent.	He wants to make her have a life without him	10
Between May and September 1943 while stationed in China	Author’s context: Matsunaga uses the three poems by Teika that follow to express his pain concerning Ayako, with whom he felt united but who he already knew would be left alone after his death. “I wish to forget, so do not tell me uselessly that she pines for me, autumn wind on the peaks of pine-clad Inaba Mountain.”	Wishing to forget the pain associated with Ayako	11
Between May and September 1943 while stationed in China	Second poem: “Thinking it too painful for my heart to bear. I parted from her, So why through the years do I still miss her face?”	He has left her. He still misses her	5
Between May and September 1943 while stationed in China	Failing to die from longing. I have passed these three years, in my stubborn hope of living to see you yet.	He hopes to see her again	9
Between May and September 1943 while stationed in China	Author’s context: Matsunaga Tatsuki intended to publish a series of his brother’s writings under the title Shirochidori, or “White Plover.” Now that it is too late, he contemplates the meaning of his unfinished task. “I should have published Shirochidori, the writings left by my elder brother Shigeo . . . .I spent a great deal of time and energy, but was able to finish only the first volume before I was drafted. It was because I tried too hard to be objective and not to have my subjectivity and feelings interfere . . . .In retrospect, it was the first and most important task I should have carried out . . . .I did not have confidence . . . .Now that I will die, I hope this is done, not for him or for me. Leave the dead to bury their dead. Publication of Shigeo’s writings and a biography is not for remembrance or sentimentalism . . . .It is our obligation to the next generation, our historical mission for the next generation and for the nation, that we inform young people how the young buds were cut short by the war.”	Could not finish publishing his brother’s writings	4, 6
Between May and September 1943 while stationed in China	My context: He has been reading German Students’ War Letters and this is how he feels while reading the letters. “ . . . .Our army is just like this. I cannot read the last sentence without crying. Even during the war, with strict control of speech, it is not right that an individual’s real feelings cannot be conveyed . . . .In the third letter by this German student soldier, which was written just before his death, he claims that what he had written in his earlier letter was simply an expression of unhappiness among the soldiers. He says that everything was find then. Judging from my own experience and from Shigeo’s Handwritten Notes of a Student Soldier, I would say that finally the power of intense and cruel intellect took over his thought. Intellect forces deception and a distortion of reality, suppressing one’s feelings and simply celebrating the victory of the will.”	In the letter, a soldier says, “The most important thing is the spirit of sacrifice and it is not a question of for what one sacrifices”	9
Between May and September 1943 while stationed in China	The third part of this Record of Life in the Army should be the most important of all, because it describes the process of being educated to be a probationary officer, participating in two major battles, being promoted to first lieutenant, and teaching newly drafted soldiers. Having become an officer, I unlocked everything, resulting in numerous confrontations, and my life was ridden with tension. Because of it, my spirit was awakened and filled with vigor, and I began to feel myself as I lived in tension. The only problem was that I hardly had time to write down my notes. But a rich sensitivity, like what I felt as a young man, returned to me, and I shed tears for the first time after entering the army two years ago. I am spending my life with gratitude and excitement.	Describing his life from being drafted to an officer and remembering what it felt like to be a young man	7
Between May and September 1943 while stationed in China	My distrust in the rigid army education and my own judgment have made me adopt a unique educational method. I am almost obsessed with my own way of teaching. Succeed of fail? Intellect wins over the body? What sort of difference would result if the new conscripts were educated to use their intellect, compared to other soldiers? That will determine my worth. This is the very first task in my life. It is the task into which I pour my entire energy and spirit. In this for the first time I have discovered my passion for life.	Adopting a unique educational method	6, 7

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Appendix S.

Participant 6, Hayashi Ichizo, Coping Strategies Tallied.

Participant 6—Hayashi Ichizo
Coping number	Number of times
3	2/28
4	8/28
5	2/28
6	2/28
7	5/28
8	4/28
9	3/28
10	4/28
12	4/28

Note. See Appendix T for full analysis.

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Appendix T.

Participant 6, Hayashi Ichizo, Diary Entries at One Timeframe, Time 1 Before He Was Drafted.

Participant 6—Hayashi Ichizo
Date	Diary entry	Problem	Coping number
Time 1—Diaries written on Naval Base
January 9, 1945	Author’s context: This was when he was stationed on the Won-san Naval Base in Korea. “To my surprise, I was given a new notebook. So, I start writing my diary . . . .Even though it is our goal to fight, it is frustrating that we are just waiting . . . .Today we again cannot go on the plane . . . .On the Won-san Base I won’t be able to go to the front even after cherry blossoms are gone and new leaves come out on the trees.”	Goal is to fight	9
January 29, 1945	I have no replied to my mother’s letter yet. Her mention of my marriage feels like something remote, although it makes me feel good. I am definitely going to die. Of course I can marry, but I am definitely going to die. Marriage is all right as long as it does not benefit only one party and does not take advantage of the woman.	Concern over marriage	3
February 22, 1945	Author’s context: On this day, he is assigned to the tokkōtai unit. “We should follow the expression ‘As His Majesty’s assignment’. We are assigned the location of our death. We should simply plunge . . . .Human beings are endowed with an ability to forget.”	Assigned tokkōtai unit	9
February 23, 1945	It looks like our life will last only about three months. I have dreaded death so much. And yet, it is already decided for us . . . .My environment in the past was beautiful. So, I feel I can die dreaming. But when I think of my mother, I cannot help but cry. When I think of my mother struggling over twenty years, relying on me who was her hope, and when I think how capable and talented she is and how beautiful she is, I cling to my life. How I wish that we spent happy days together. I am sure people will try to console her [after I die]. But, I know there is no way to ease her pain . . . .There is some pleasure in receiving praise from people [such as his mother will receive after his death]. There must be some consolation in dying beside His Majesty. But, for my mother, my death is final. I cry as I think of my mother.	Dreading own death	3, 4
February 23, 1945	Continuation of above diary entry, second paragraph. “How fortunate I am that I believe in God, whom my mother believes in. My mind is at ease when I think that God takes care of everything. God would not make my mother or myself sad. I am sure God will bestow happiness upon us. Even [though] I will die, I dream of our lives together . . . .I know my country is beautiful . . . .My earnest hope is that our country will overcome this crisis and prosper. I can’t bear the thought of our nation being stampeded by the dirty enemy. I must avenge [it] with my own life.”	God can take care of everything	12
February 23, 1945	Continuation of above diary entry, third paragraph. “To be honest, I cannot say that the wish to die for the emperor is genuine, coming from my heart. However, it is decided for me that I die for the emperor . . . .I shall not be afraid of the moment of my death. But I am afraid of how the fear of death will perturb my life.”	Decided that he is going to do for emperor	4, 9
March 2, 1945	I dreamed of my death in a fierce battle. My only wish is to die for the emperor. How consoling it is to know that you would be honored upon death. At least people would remember me. When I think how I would live in their mind, I feel pleased.	Dying for emperor	7
March 4, 1945	I just remembered the time when I was contemplating suicide. It was a time when I had given up on myself. I had to forgo the thought of happiness and dedication. Today, death is given to me. Although it has been given to me for some time, I am not acutely feeling its immediacy . . . .The reason why I am reminded of suicide is that a battlefield death means a complete annihilation of myself, preventing me from making contributions [to society] and engaging in enterprises. It is easy to talk about death in the abstract, as the ancient philosophers discussed. But, it is real death I fear, and I don’t know if I can overcome the fear. I am drawn to the notion of the battlefield death, but it is an escape for me. Although death is given to me, I will hold onto life. It is better not to think of death, but to think of life precisely because death is given to me. I shall live! I will try to find an eternal life.	Death is given to him	7
March 19, 1945	I have a wish to make a difference in the world. [The idiomatic Japanese expression is “to throw a stone.”] I cannot deny that one element of that is my wish that people recognize my existence. But, above all, it derives from the emptiness I feel in myself and my rage over the so-called leaders who are incapable of recognizing problems even I can identify. Within two or three months, I will die. If my death is a glorious battlefield death, then, I will welcome my fighting . . . .Our ancestors’ wish was to die beside the emperor. Loyal individuals wished to do so . . . .The military personnel who hold important positions are committing a sin which should not be excused; they are killing infants and innocent civilians in China . . . .There is no more time for me to escape . . . .This time I shall not try to escape.	Wish to make a difference in the world	4, 10
March 21, 1945	Even for a short life, there are many memories. For someone who had a good life, it is very difficult to part with it. But I reached a point of no return. I must plunge into an enemy vessel. As the preparation for the takeoff [for the final flight] nears, I feel a heavy pressure on me. I don’t think I can stare at death . . . .I tried my best to escape in vain. So, now that I don’t have a choice, I must go valiantly . . . .Despair, despair is a sin. I waited for my mother’s letter but it has not arrived. Even now I cannot forget the happy family life I had. How I wish to see her once more. There is very little time left for me.	Must plunge into an enemy vessel	4, 5
Undated letters to his mother between January 9 – April 3, 1945	Thank you for your letter. I am reading it over and over again. Although I don’t know how to express my thoughts, such a subject matter [her urging that he marry] feels remote to me . . . .But I really appreciate Mother’s thought. I am reading over and over again the three letters you sent me this year. Is it all right to keep the photos? I much enjoyed the photo of you, mother, elder sister Chiyoko, and elder sister Hiroko’s daughters, Junko, and Yoko. Junko really has grown. I wish I could see you all . . . .Enemies are frequently bombing Osaka. How is elder sister Hiroko [who lives in Osaka]? . . . .It has gotten warm at Won-san . . . .I am waiting for cherry blossom to bloom. Are they in full bloom in Fukuoka? Enemies are approaching, so we have to be on guard . . . .I enclose a money order for four hundred yen. I have no need for it . . . .Please buy something for [a list of the names of his nieces and a nephew follows] . . . .I cannot send anything from Korea.	Wishing he could see his family	6
Undated letters to his mother between January 9 – April 3, 1945	Author’s context: He begins to express the pain he feels at his realization that his death is imminent, switching to kachan, a form used by children, which is rendered as “Mommy.” “Mother, finally time the to write a very sad letter has arrived. My thoughts echo the following poem: ‘parents’ thought is deeper than children’s thought of them. How would they take today’s news,’” I have been truly fortunate. I did whatever I wanted to do. Please forgive me; it was because I was relying on your indulgent love. I am happy to go as a tokkōtai pilot. But I begin to cry when I think of you. When I think how Mommy struggled so hard to raise me, I find it so hard to leave you behind without ever having given you pleasure or peace of mind . . . .I still want to be spoiled by you. There is nothing that pleases me than your letters. I wish I could see you once more. I want to be held in your arms and sleep . . . .I am writing this letter when my final flight is the day after tomorrow. By chance I might be able to fly over Hakata on my way.	Thinking about his Mom	5
Undated letters to his mother between January 9 – April 3, 1945	Continuation from letter above. “Mommy, Mommy—I went against your advice and had to reach this destination. I wish I could say that I am pleased to have my wish fulfilled. But I should have followed your advice.”	Went against his mom’s advice	9
Undated letters to his mother between January 9 – April 3, 1945	Continuation from letter above. “Mother, I am a man. All men born in Japan are destined to die fighting for the country. You have done a splendid job raising me to become an honorable man . . . .I will do a splendid job sinking an enemy aircraft. Do brag about me.”	Men are destined to die	7
Undated letters to his mother between January 9 – April 3, 1945	Continuation from letter above. My wish to return to you haunts me. But this is not good. Do you remember that I was told to die at the time of baptism? . . . .All is in God’s hands. Life and death in this world are of no importance . . . .I read the Bible every day. When I am reading the Bible, I feel I am next to you. I shall bring the Bible and the book of hymns on my plane and sortie. And also the mission medal which the school principal gave me. And the amulet Mother gave me. Mother, you are a person who commands great respect. I have always thought that I would not measure up to you . . . .Tomorrow is our day to fly. I find it hard to concentrate, but I wanted to leave my words to tell you that I want to be spoiled by you.	Wish to return to his mom	12
Undated letters to his mother between January 9 – April 3, 1945	Continuation from letter above. “I am going to have Umeno, a close friend and navy comrade, come and we will chart the course for flying. I shall fly over Hakata and Munakata. I shall bid farewell as I look from a distance at the cherry blossoms in Nishi Park. Mother, please be pleased that someone like me was chosen to be a tokkōtai pilot. I will die with dignity as a soldier. We are Christians. Nevertheless, Mother, I am sad. When you are sad, please cry. I too will cry; let us cry together to our hearts’ content. I will sing a hymn as I dive onto an enemy vessel. I have a great deal more to say but I stop here . . . .The day before the final sortie. Good-bye.”	Getting ready to fly	4, 8, 10
Letters to his Mother from Kanoya Base. Hayashi’s final flight was postponed because of a malfunction in plane. These are letters between April 5–12, 1945	. . . Mother, please don’t feel lonely after I die. This is an honorable death, fighting for the glory of the imperial nation. As I came down here, I did not go over Hakata, but as I flew over Kyushu, I sang to my heart’s content. There is nothing more to say.	Him dying	7
Letters to his Mother from Kanoya Base. Hayashi’s final flight was postponed because of a malfunction in plane. These are letters between April 5–12, 1945	Continuation from above letter. “Do give my best to all. I no longer have the time to write to them. We are all going to plunge onto the enemy vessels. The attire for the tokkōtai pilots at the time of their final mission includes the rising sun headband and a pure white scarf around the neck. They look like the forty-seven loyal retainers. For my last flight I will put on my body the rising sun flag on which you wrote. ‘A thousand may fall at your right side, then thousand at your left . . . .’ I will put your photo right on my chest. I shall be sure to sink an enemy vessel. When you hear over the radio of our success in sinking their vessels, please remember that one of them is the vessel I plunge into. I will have peace of mind, knowing that mother is watching me and praying for me.” Then he adds humourously, “I will also bring the dried bonito Mrs. Tachi'ishi gave me as an amulet for protection, since in order to return to you, I must go through the sea.”	Going to plunge	12
Letters to his Mother from Kanoya Base. Hayashi’s final flight was postponed because of a malfunction in plane. These are letters between April 5–12, 1945	It is like a dream. Tomorrow, I am no longer alive. Those who went on sortie yesterday are all dead?—I can’t feel it as reality. I feel like they will suddenly return. You might feel the same way about me. But, please give it up. After all, “Leave the dead to bury their dead” [Matthew 8:22], right? . . . .It’s all right for you to cry. Please cry. But please do not be so sad.	Those who went yesterday all died	10
Letters to his Mother from Kanoya Base. Hayashi’s final flight was postponed because of a malfunction in plane. These are letters between April 5–12, 1945	Continuation from letter above. “The enemy’s action is being dulled. Victory is for us. Our mission will be the last blow to the enemy. ‘For to me to live is Christ, and to die is gain’ [Philippians 1:21]. I will be going ahead of you. But, I wonder if I would be allowed to enter to heaven. Mother, please pray for me. I cannot bear the thought of going to a place where you would not join me later.”	Dying faster than his mother	8, 12
Letters to his Mother from Kanoya Base. Hayashi’s final flight was postponed because of a malfunction in plane. These are letters between April 5–12, 1945	Tomorrow, I shall plunge onto a group of enemy aircraft carriers. If you perform a memorial service, the date should be April 10.	Plunging onto enemy aircraft	10
Letters to his Mother from Kanoya Base. Hayashi’s final flight was postponed because of a malfunction in plane. These are letters between April 5–12, 1945	Thinking “today is it,” eleven days have passed. The commander in chief of our combined squadron came to tell us to do our best. Mother, I have written all I wanted to say. Today, I went with my friends to a nearby school and sang hymns accompanied by an organ.	Waiting it out	8
Letter to his Brother Makio from Won-san Base, younger brother, Makio, who had just joined Naval Reserve	I saw your photo and you look splendid [in your uniform]. Spring in the field of Tsukushi [an ancient designation for Kyushu] must be marvelous with plum blossoms, then mustard green (nanohana) followed by cherry blossoms. With the enemy getting closer and closer, I am sure you are going through strenuous training. Do take care of yourself. Do try to send as many letters as possible to Mother. I am sure she is very lonely. At times she sends me interesting letters.	Asking his younger brother to not forget to send letters to their mother	6
Letter to His Brother Makio from the Kanoya Base	I take it that you have been healthy, going through training. Cherry blossoms are blooming and it is time, finally, for me to sortie. “Seven lives”—I will try my best until I bring about a good battlefield victory. I am glad that I am born at the decisive time for our nation—whether to prosper or perish . . . .We had many fights, but quarrels between brothers were fun.	Trying his best to bring about good battlefield victory	7
Letter to Yoshida Shohachi from Won-san Base (close friend)	His majesty’s “Ugly shield.” Yes, I pray that I will be one. I completed reading The Sickness unto Death. I find a fighting spirit surging in myself, when I have been avoiding [my destiny] ever since my Higher School days . . . .I bet you feel enraged about the air raid.	Finding fighting spirit	4
Letter to Tsuchi'I Kentaro from Won-san Base (another close friend)	The time has come. Elder Brother (customary form of address for friends, showing both respect and affection), I am sorry that I cannot see you. Elder Brother, do survive the war. How pleasant it is to die beside His Majesty.	Time has come	4
Letter to Tsuchi'I Kentaro from Won-san Base (another close friend)	Please tell to my friends—how hard it is to terminate my life “For me to live is Christ. To die is also gain.” This is for a memory of the time we drank sweet wine.	How hard it is to terminate his life	8, 12
Letter to Tsuchi'I Kentaro from Won-san Base (another close friend)	As long as you are alive, it is OK. You, my good friend, I enjoyed your friendship. The cherry blossoms in the schoolyard must be in full bloom. A beautiful friend of mine. The day when I fly my plane, I will sing hymns and the dormitory song. At the end of the clouds, fondly remembering my home. The farewell party was fun. I, the brave warrior, will definitely destroy our enemy, even if it takes seven lives. Hopefully, you won’t forget above me after I go. Since I am intoxicated, I don’t know what I write. I am sure you understand. Forgive me if I said anything nasty to you. As long as you are alive, it is OK. I am lonely.	He wants his friend to stay alive	4

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Appendix U.

Participant 7, Nakao Takenori, Coping Strategies Tallied.

Participant 7—Nakao Takenori
Coping number	Number of times
2	1/17
3	6/17
4	2/17
5	2/17
6	3/17
7	2/17
8	1/17
9	1/17
10	1/17
11	1/17
12	1/17
Time 2—Drafted as a student soldier in December 1943
6	1/4
7	2/4
8	1/4
10	4/4

Note. See Appendix V for full analysis.

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Appendix V.

Participant 7, Nakao Takenori, Diary Entries at Two Timeframes, Time 1 Before He Was Drafted and Time 2 While He Was in the Army.

Participant 7—Nakao Takenori
Date	Diary entry	Problem	Coping number
Time 1—Before being drafted
August 12, 1939	Author’s context: Nakao is anticipating his own death and feels lonely. “People cry for me, they feel sad, and they console me. But, after all, one dies all alone.”	Anticipating his own death	2
August 25, 1939	Author’s context: His family received a telegram about death of his aunt. On same day, a neighbor came to tell them that a neighbor’s baby had died. “Human life is even less dependable than the preparation of a meal. I was stunned. It is hard to imagine that these are human deaths. It is death that is coming to me soon or later. Buddha was supposed to have realized the ephemerality of life and transcended it by overcoming changes in life thereby making them less painful. Yet, death is sad. It is sad to send off the dead. ‘Those who gain the eyes of wisdom would no longer become chained to desires and attachment’—those eyes of wisdom. My new departure in life must start here.”	He has just realized his aunt died and his neighbor’s baby died	3, 4
December 12, 1939	Author’s context: After praising the Clemenceau brothers, Emile Zola, and the judge at the final trial, he declares. “Am I to enter the world of chaos in which one’s partisan interests obstruct justice? I should not like to be part of the world that accrues justice only to the bureaucrats and almighty power to the military. I prefer to be in the outer field and, like Zola, try to steer the nation toward justice and truth.”	Am I to enter the world of chaos . . . ?	5
March 2, 1940	People say they are lonely. When I open the book, the world lonely jumps out at me. I try to rebuff it—why should I be lonely? Why should one be lonely? Those who say “lonely” are those who indulge in their own sentimentality. Look directly at the objectives. Then, the world is filled with joy and all beings bless you . . . .You are lonely when you struggle with the discrepancy between the ideal and reality? . . . .We cannot compromise with reality . . . .Be strong, be strong. My soul adores a strong person. Only a strong person can lead me . . . .But my soul often falls into the depth of loneliness.	The issue of loneliness	3, 7
May 9, 1940	Author’s context: While still in higher school, he already anticipates his imminent death. “Everything in front of me is in gray. Desperation and gloom with no hope of lifting. I am not sure at all if I can bear the physical and mental exhaustion. Am I to simply die without any meaning to my life?. I feel everything will suddenly collapse.”	Everything in front of me is in gray	11
August 3, 1940	Author’s context: Nakao goes to see his grandfather on his deathbed. He finds the grandfather’s departure an absolute break from this world. “Grandfather, who would live through my father and uncle, is no longer a grandfather who lives on in history but discarded ‘remains’ in this world . . . .His life would soon disappear as our memory of him fades away. He used to say that he was always with Buddha and thus he would not regret when and wherever he dies . . . .As for me, I do not want to die until my own work [goal] is accomplished. I don’t believe in its accomplishment in the next world.”	Grandfather died	10
January 3, 1941	If evil is justified on the basis of its good result, must one accept the consequence when the justification of evil results in evil, rather than in intended good? It is justified to bring evil to good, but evil is evil and one must identify it as such.	Conflict with evil	3
October 19, 1941	Author’s context: His diary refers to Tanabe more often than do those of any of the other student pilots. Tanabe was one of the most influential philosophers at the time, and Nakao’s diary testifies to his impact on young intellectuals. “Although it is a small book, it points to the historical nature of human existence . . . .It explains so well the relationship between the individual and the nation . . . .not that I agree with everything he says, but he is right—because of the liberalism and idealism of the nineteenth century, I have been thinking only of the individual and humanity. The book clearly elucidated the importance of the nation. I had observed our nation and its reality, which is far from the ideal. I had not realized that the imperfection of the nation itself is the stage for us to work on. I was born as a member of a nation . . . .If we assume the position of a leader of a nation, we should actively identify the ills of a nation and try to get rid of them from the roots.”	Actively identify the ills of a nation and getting rid of them from roots	6
March 2, 1942	Author’s context: His grandmother told him to visit a temple to obtain an amulet that is believed to protect a soldier from bullets. On his way back from the temple, he pays a visit to the tomb of a friend who entered the military before he did. “The tomb marker of my friend who died in the south. How painful it is to see his age at death, twenty-one. I pulled out a few autumn weeds. To purify my friend’s tomb.”	Paid a visit to the tomb of his friend	8
June 20, 1942; July 27, 1942	Author’s context: He compares Tanabe with Descartes to illuminate the importance of action, as distinct from mere contemplation. I feel a great deal of difference between the times when Descartes lived and the present. He used the proof of Ergo sum in Cogito. But, for those who live today, rather than starting at an abstract level like his, we must start with our identity as a member of a collectivity—a nation or a people—that is centered on blood and love. Shouldn’t we live with the feeling of dedication for our collectivity?	We must start with our identity as a member of a collectivity	6
September 20, 1942	Author’s context: Nakao is lonely because he so acutely senses that his own death is rapidly approaching. This is his poem “Stillness.” “How lonely is the sound of the clock in the darkness of the night. The sound of the clock brings back fond memories of my childhood. Remembering those sleepless nights. Unable to sleep for loneliness. Many thoughts come to my mind as rain falls outside.”	His own death	3, 5
November 23, 1942	Author’s context: Begins with his admiration of Socrates for calmly and courageously drinking hemlock when he was put to death for an official charge of impiety. “The problem of immortality is important. However, since I have been painfully going through my life, death, and immortality take on meaning only in terms of life . . . .The last writing by Socrates, in which he praises the beauty of the world after death, makes me want to live rather than die.”	Problem of immortality	7
November 23, 1942	The diary entry above had a following poem attached. “Praying to find meaning in life, Long and painful sleepless nights I spent.”	Finding meaning in life	12
May 5, 1943	As Dr. Tanabe explains, the nation is not simply a stage on which we exist, but we must aggressively work on it . . . .We must act on historical reality. That is true history.	Aggressively work on the nation which we exist	6
April 30 and May 1, 1943	We are fighting for life against Britain, the great empire on the decline, and America, at its peak for its material culture. Although I am not physically in the battlefield yet, I am already in it. I myself, in pursuit of the infinite and in love with the absolute, too, must sacrifice myself for the nation . . . .Is the “absolute” to be located in our sacrifice for the nation? . . . .I cannot help but agonize over the contradiction . . . .I, who have come to know the depth of life and live that life, must sacrifice my life for our country since my life is destined to be given for the nation? . . . .I painfully struggle in pursuit of truth.	Pursuit of infinite and in love with absolute	3, 4
Undated, around before being drafted.	Author’s context: He further explains the basis of his opposition to the military view. “To threaten the life of an innocent should never be allowed. However, from the perspective of the military, it does not matter, since the honour of the military is the only thing they care about, filling the air with lies and not questioning what is true.”	Threatening life of an innocent doesn’t matter in military	9
November 10, 1943	Author’s context: Nakao travels all the way from Tokyo to Kyoto to listen to a lecture by Tanabe Hajime that inspires him enormously. “At Kyoto station, and the next station and the next, remains of the soldiers were making the ‘victorious return.’ It was painful to look at the whiteness of the box (ashes of cremated soldiers). ‘We shall meet again at Yasukuni Shrine’—Do soldiers utter these words without hesitation when they are in combat?”	Saw remains of soldiers	3
Time 2—Drafted as a student soldier in December 1943
Date	Diary entry	Problem	Coping number
January 1, 1944	Author’s context: He wrote a letter to his parents. “Today we welcome the first day of the beautiful 1944. The navy battleship flag against the blue sky indeed looks vigorous. This year I am finally able to plunge onto the American and British battleships. I will be even more determined and do my best as I think of the banks of the Nagara River.”	Finally able to plunge onto enemy battleships	7, 10
April 28, 1945	Author’s context: Last letter to his parents. “At the farewell party, people gave me encouragement. I did my best to encourage myself. I am truly a happy person. I can now meet my death with the belief that I have been treated with sincerity by people when I have not done anything for them. I have nothing to say at this time. I only hope for health for you all.”	Farewell party	7, 10
April 28, 1945	Continuation of the letter. My co-pilot is Uno Shigeru, a handsome boy, aged nineteen, a naval petty officer second class. His home is in Hyogo Prefecture . . . .He thinks of me as his elder brother, and I think of him as my younger brother. Working as one heart, we will plunge into an enemy vessel. My photo, which I had taken when I visited the home of my colleague Ensign Maeda, should be ready shortly. They will send it to you. Please send one to Yanaguira [his best friend] . . . .The other day I paid my visit to Kotohira Shrine and had a picture taken. I told them to send the finished photo to you. Just in case, I enclose the receipt . . . .I imagine you would like to come visit me. But I don’t even regret that we did not meet. I am sure we share our feeling for our country. Please do not get discouraged, and fight to defeat America and Britain. Please say the same to grandmother. I will leave behind my diary. Although I did not do much in my life, I am content that I fulfilled my wish to live a pure life, leaving nothing ugly behind me.	He is going to plunge soon, with his copilot	6, 8, 10
April 28 1945	Continuation of the letter. If you have a chance, please show my diary to Yanagiura. I have other friends from my student days and got to know some colleague in the navy. I am sure Japan’s future will be fine, with these people working for the country. Yoshitaka—do your best. If the books you sent me arrive by tomorrow, I will carry them with me. I wish to say my thanks to my uncle and many other people. Please convey my thanks to them. Wishing you the best for your future.	His last words	10

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Appendix W.

All Coping Strategies for All Participants Tallied.

Coping number	Number of times
	Time 1—Before being drafted	Time 2—During the military
1	3	2
2	8	3
3	18	10
4	14	24
5	9	8
6	15	10
7	9	12
8	8	9
9	9	13
10	4	13
11	1	6
12	5	9
13		1

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Appendix X.

Significant Coping Strategies for All Participants Grouped to Two Timeframes, Before Being Drafted and During the Army.

	Time 1—Before being drafted	Time 2—Whilst being drafted (as long as in the military)
Participant 1	Accept Responsibility, Planful Problem Solving, Endurance/Obedience/Effort
Participant 2	Self-Control, Endurance/Obedience/Effort	Accept Responsibility, Denial, Distancing, Endurance/Obedience/Effort,
Participant 3	Distancing, Accept Responsibility	Accept Responsibility, Seeking Social Support
Participant 4	Self-Control
Participant 5	Self-Control, Seeking Social Support	Endurance/Obedience/Effort
Participant 6	Accept Responsibility, Positive Reappraisal
Participant 7	Self-Control	Compartmentalization

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Appendix Y.

Frequency of Coping Strategies Used by All Participants Across Timeframe 1 and Timeframe 2.

	Timeframe 1	Timeframe 2
Distancing	1	1
Self-Control	4	0
Accept Responsibility	3	2
Planful Problem Solving	1	0
Positive Reappraisal	1	0
Seeking Social Support	1	1
Endurance/Obedience/Effort	2	2
Compartmentalization	0	1
Denial	0	1