Putting evidence on CTE to work

Areas of strong evidence: High school graduation and employment

Most high school CTE students take their courses at comprehensive high schools or regional technical education centers. Nationally representative studies looking at CTE in comprehensive high schools provide hopeful findings, suggesting that early exposure to CTE can fuel more credit completion in high school and better high school graduation outcomes (Gottfried & Plasman, 2017; Kreisman & Stange, 2020).

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However, the strongest evidence of CTE’s impact has come from whole-school models, or CTE-dedicated models. In these programs, every enrolled student pursues a multiyear sequence of aligned CTE courses in addition to standard graduation requirements. This is the least common CTE model, but it has generated the clearest proof of impact. Evidence generated by randomized experiments and from natural experiments provide insight into how CTE produces benefits and for whom. In most of the studies yielding the strongest evidence, student admission to these schools has been randomly assigned (or very nearly so) because student interest in attending these schools has exceeded the capacity to enroll them. Because of the random assignment, we stand on firmer ground when we attribute outcomes to CTE exposure at those schools than if the student population were entirely self-selected.

Results from studies of regional technical schools in Massachusetts and the Technical Education High Schools in Connecticut provide clear evidence of positive effects on high school completion and employment and earnings after high school. In Massachusetts, the evidence suggests that attending a CTE-dedicated school increases the likelihood of high school graduation by 10 percentage points, with even larger impacts for students who are eligible for free or reduced-price meals (Dougherty, 2018).

In Connecticut, similar impacts were found on high school graduation outcomes, but the effects were clearest only for male students. These boys also saw positive effects on 9th-grade attendance and state-mandated test scores in math and English language arts (Brunner, Dougherty, & Ross, 2021). Though girls saw no negative impact of being admitted to the Connecticut technical high schools, they also did not see apparent benefits. This is at least partially explained by two factors. First, outcomes for girls who were not admitted to the CTE schools were better than for boys who were not admitted, so the chance to see positive effects was more limited. Second, for boys, the largest impacts on employment outcomes were driven by those who entered the skilled trades or transportation fields. Enrollment in these programs is over 80% male.

The CTE-dedicated schools in Massachusetts and Connecticut are somewhat exceptional, although similar schools exist in New York City and New Jersey. But a more common model of CTE — career academies — also has generated strong evidence of effectiveness. Career academies are career-themed organizations of required academic courses and electives in high schools. In general, they also include applied and work-based learning experiences. This model first was developed in the 1960s in Philadelphia to help improve the relevance of school experiences and raise high school graduation rates (Stern, Dayton, & Ruby, 2000). The best evidence for career academies again was generated from cases where student interest exceeded the school’s capacity, so admission was made through a lottery. A North Carolina academy focused on IT had higher graduation rates, better attendance, and improved test scores (Hemelt, Lenard, & Paeplow, 2019). This positive evidence complemented earlier experimental evidence from nine career academies that showed improved employment outcomes, especially for males, and particularly among those who participated in more work-based learning activities (Kemple & Willner, 2008; Page, 2012).

Recent evidence from California demonstrates positive impacts of awarding competitive grants to school districts to expand CTE offerings that aligned to local employment needs. In particular, districts that won grants added new CTE programs, and those programs improved high school completion rates, particularly for female students (Bonilla, 2020). This evidence from California complements the work in Connecticut that showed positive impacts for boys. In the Connecticut context, programs that produced the largest benefits were in male-dominated construction trades and automotive fields. In contrast, the expansion of CTE in California aligned with workforce needs in health care, which has a predominantly female workforce.

Because most CTE experiences take place in comprehensive high schools, it is important to think about how the critical elements of CTE might be integrated into the general curriculum. Applied learning, connections between education and employment pathways, and work-based learning experiences are central to CTE, in general, and a core emphasis of a specific curricular approach called Linked Learning (www.linkedlearning.org). Though no randomized experiments exist on this approach, a large-scale and careful evaluation of Linked Learning did suggest that students who participated in this model were more likely to complete high school and be eligible to enroll in a four-year college than similar students who did not participate (Caspary & Warner, 2018). Originally developed and expanded in California, the Linked Learning model has expanded to several other states. It is gaining traction as an example of how learning can be made more relevant to high schoolers by emphasizing the connections to post-high school opportunities.

Areas of emerging evidence: Postsecondary transitions and outcomes

In addition to the evidence that CTE can improve workforce outcomes, we are finding that CTE also can guide transitions to postsecondary education. This is especially true when CTE programming in high school has a clear pathway to additional required training for workforce entry (Ecton & Dougherty, in press). An example is health care, where a student might go from a health assisting program in high school into a licensed practical nursing (LPN) program in college. Aligned pathways also exist in engineering, business, hospitality, and other areas.

Some of the efforts to bridge this transition period are being studied in CTE whole-school models. For example, MDRC has been engaged in a multiyear study following students who were admitted via lottery to schools in New York City’s P-tech program. These schools span grades 9-14, providing four years of high school and up to two years of college. They are designed to ensure access to training in high-demand industries and occupations as well as to serve as a bridge to postsecondary certification and degrees, particularly in fields that require training beyond high school. Recognizing that CTE engages students in their studies, even if they do not plan to work or pursue further training in an applied field, this model facilitates the earning of college credits (and, potentially, an associate degree) while in high school. Evidence from the study suggests that students in P-tech schools are much more likely to take and earn college credits while in high school than students who applied but weren’t admitted. Though the study cannot yet see students through six full years of the 9-14 program, at the end of the fourth year, P-tech students earned the equivalent of two courses’ worth of college credit more than their peers outside P-tech (Dixon & Rosen, 2022).

A dual enrollment CTE program in North Carolina has yielded similar findings. An ongoing study of the CTE Pathway in Career and College Promise (CCP) found that the presence of the program increased college credits and enrollment in college within a year of high school graduation (Edmunds et al., 2022). Worth noting, as is the case with other high school CTE models, the statewide CCP model also showed evidence of modest increases in high school graduation rates.

This evidence regarding the transition from high school to college adds to the earlier literature that highlights the increased earnings that often come with the completion of degrees or certificates in applied fields at community and technical colleges. For example, a number of studies highlight the benefits of completing certificates, especially in health care fields that confer clear economic and employment benefits to those who hold them (e.g., Stevens, Kurlaender, & Grosz, 2019; Xu & Trimble, 2016). In general, evidence across states and programs of study suggests that CTE-aligned certificates and degrees from community colleges convey large, positive impacts on earnings and employment. So, while we know community and technical colleges have long provided CTE training that is valuable in the workforce, recent innovations in early college and dual enrollment CTE models also might smooth the way toward training in college. What we do not yet know is whether increased college credit accumulation while in high school leads to better completion rates for certificates and degrees in college.

Equity and opportunities

Retrospective studies of CTE in the 1970s and 1980s reveal the unsavory reality that technical and vocational education had been used as a “dumping ground” for students who were perceived to not be performing well, had behavioral challenges, or were Black or brown or from lower-income backgrounds. Much of the recent evidence on CTE has not been as focused on ensuring equity, though much of it has shown that the patterns of earlier periods were not present in the programs being studied. We must remain vigilant to ensure equitable access and outcomes.

For example, a recent report from the CTE Policy Exchange showed that differences in CTE program participation in high school largely is explained by differences in program offerings across schools (Carruthers et al., 2022). Thus, while there was not much evidence of within-school tracking into CTE (or specific fields), what programs students could access depended on where they lived and attended school. Some variation in offerings is expected and appropriate because of differences in community expectations and local workforce needs. However, ensuring access to high-quality CTE with on-ramps to college or higher-paying careers, especially in smaller regions, must remain a top priority.

Focus on equity of opportunity and outcomes also will remain important for students with disabilities. Federal law already requires that transition planning and services be a part of individualized education programs (IEPs). Because CTE is frequently part of students’ IEPs, understanding how disabled students access CTE programs and the outcomes of their participation is critical. Existing research suggests that high school CTE can improve high school completion outcomes for individuals with disabilities (Carruthers et al., 2022; Dougherty, Grindal, & Hehir, 2018; Theobald et al., 2019). Research also has documented that even as CTE offerings have grown to include more IT and health care programs, students with disabilities may be less likely to participate in these programs, which are generally known to be linked to higher-paying jobs or college enrollment (Carruthers et al., 2021; Dougherty & Harbaugh Macdonald, 2020).

The path ahead

Over the last five years, the Institute for Education Sciences, the research arm of the U.S. Department of Education, has funded a network of researchers and policy experts to expand the evidence base for CTE using study designs that allow for results to be interpreted in a “cause and effect” or causal manner. The CTE Research Network has convened research teams from across the U.S., performed trainings, and worked with the Association for Career and Technical Education and Jobs for the Future to disseminate findings and improve local policy and practice. At the same time, other research consortia focused on CTE have begun or expanded. MDRC has increased its focus on CTE research with its Center for Effective Career and Technical Education. Similarly, a group of researchers spanning five states have created the CTE Policy Exchange to provide both high-quality research on CTE and state-specific technical assistance. Each of these groups makes evidence available through their websites, hosts trainings, and disseminates their findings across national and international audiences. Much of the evidence cited above has been generated by researchers connected to these endeavors, and there is good reason to expect more in the years to come.

As research continues to grow, it is important for state and local leaders to continue to innovate and improve existing programs to align with both what is believed to support student outcomes, as well as what the evidence clearly suggests is effective. Ensuring access to and expansion of high-quality CTE programs could improve high school graduation rates by creating more meaningful and engaging learning environments. This includes more and deeper work-based learning opportunities where students familiarize themselves with industries and occupations and gain skills in how to operate as a working adult. Though CTE programs tend to emphasize skills and experiences with a clear connection to work, these programs need not be only for students who wish to go right into employment after high school. There is growing evidence that high school CTE can be a bridge to postsecondary education, and all available workforce data suggest that training beyond a high school diploma, even if not a bachelor’s degree, is likely to be required for many jobs in the middle- to late-21st century.