Exploring the link between work-family conflict and job burnout among Indian police officers

Abstract

Working in law enforcement can be a trying experience that can result in work-family conflict. Work-family conflict occurs when the domains of work and home spill into one another, causing strain and conflict for a person. There are four major dimensions of work-family conflict: time-based, behaviour-based, strain-based and family-based. One consequence of being exposed to the stressor of work-family conflict over time is job burnout. Job burnout has three major dimensions: emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and a reduced sense of personal accomplishment on the job. The current study explored the association between four types of work-family conflict with the three dimensions of burnout among Indian police officers. All four types of work-family conflict were positively related to emotional burnout. Time-based, behaviour-based and family-based conflict had significant positive associations with depersonalisation burnout and with reduced sense of personal accomplishment burnout.

Keywords

India police Indian police work-family conflict burnout

Across nations, police work can be demanding and stressful (Mostert and Rothmann, 2006; Vuorensyrja and Mälkiä, 2011). Unfortunately, one possible consequence of prolonged exposure to chronic stress is job burnout (Martinussen et al., 2007; Vuorensyrja and Mälkiä, 2011). The literature describes many negative effects of burnout, such as lower job performance (Bakker and Heuven, 2006; Malach Pines and Keinan, 2005; Vuorensyrja and Mälkiä, 2011), greater absenteeism, turnover intent and turnover among officers (Burke, 1993; Burke and Deszca, 1986; Jackson and Maslach, 1982; Houdmont, 2012; Malach Pines and Keinan, 2005, 2007; Martinussen et al., 2007; Yun et al., 2015), higher alcohol and drug use (Burke, 1993; Jackson and Maslach, 1982; Johnson et al., 2005; Vuorensyrja and Mälkiä, 2011), increased incidence of mental and physical health problems (Burke, 1993; Burke and Deszca, 1986; Malach Pines and Keinan, 2005; Stearns and Moore, 1993; Vuorensyrja and Mälkiä, 2011), lower life satisfaction and higher psychosomatic health problems (Burke, 1994; Burke and Deszca, 1986; Martinussen et al., 2007), reduced pro-organisational behaviours (Kohan and Mazmanian, 2003), greater use of force, greater support for use of force by officers, increased levels of aggression by officers (Kop et al., 1999; Queirós et al., 2012; Stearns and Moore, 1993), reduced agency efficiency and higher chances of detrimental interactions with citizens (McCarty, 2013), and greater violence by officers outside of work (Johnson et al., 2005). It is doubtful that anything positive results from burnout among police officers.

In light of the harmful outcomes associated with burnout, there has been an effort to research potential factors that may be linked to burnout. Studies have found that workplace factors contribute to burnout (Martinussen et al., 2007; McCarty, 2013). There is, however, a need for additional research because there are many workplace factors that have not been studied to determine what relationship they may have with burnout for officers. One such workplace factor is work-family conflict. Work-family conflict refers to when problems from work spill over to home and cause conflict and vice versa. Even though policing is a distinctive occupation, there has been only limited research to date concerning the relationship of the different types of work-family conflict on burnout among law enforcement personnel. Additionally, the vast majority of published research has been among police in Western countries (Buker and Dolu, 2010; Lambert et al., 2015; Martinussen et al., 2007). There has been far less research on how workplace factors might be linked to burnout among officers in non-Western countries. The effects of work-family conflict may not be universal, but instead may be situational and contextual varying across countries.

This exploratory study was undertaken to examine how the different types of work-family conflict are related to different dimensions of burnout among police officers from the Rohtak and Sonipat districts in Haryana, India. India, the world’s most populous democracy, is a dynamic, developing nation taking a more prominent role on the world stage (Unnithan, 2009). Despite India’s growing role internationally, there have been few published studies in Western journals concerning Indian police, including how work-family conflict and burnout are related to one another (Tyagi and Dhar, 2014). The current study adds to the literature by examining the relationships between the four major dimensions of work-family conflict with the three major dimensions of burnout. Many past studies have used a composite measure of work-family conflict and/or a composite measure of burnout rather than examine the relationships between the different types and dimensions of these salient workplace concepts. This knowledge can help police administrators and scholars to understand the possible association that different types of work-family conflict have with different burnout dimensions in more detail.

Brief literature review

Job burnout

The concept of job burnout was formally proposed more than 40 years ago by Freudenberger (1974). Freudenberger, who is credited with coining and defining the term, stated that burnout occurs when a worker becomes psychologically worn out and exhausted because of excessive work demands. Pines and Kafry (1978) viewed burnout as resulting from work tedium where a person was emotionally and physically depleted from the job. According to Maslach, burnout occurs when employees experienced ‘the gradual loss of caring about the people they work with. Over time, they find that they simply cannot sustain the kind of personal care and commitment required in the personal encounters that are the essence of their job’ (1978: 56). Cherniss contended that burnout was ‘when the workers defensively cope with the job by psychologically detaching themselves from the job and becoming apathetic, cynical, and rigid’ (1980: 21). Maslach and Jackson, who are viewed as pioneers in the scientific study of burnout, defined burnout as ‘a syndrome of emotional exhaustion and cynicism that occurs frequently among individuals who do “people work” of some kind’ (1981: 99).

Maslach and Jackson (1981) postulated that burnout had three dimensions of emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and a reduced sense of personal accomplishment from the job. Emotional exhaustion refers to emotional drain and fatigue stemming from the job. The depersonalisation dimension of burnout refers to treating other people in an impersonal and callous manner. Under this dimensions of burnout, a person develops cynical attitudes, questions the motivations of clients and coworkers, and treats people in a negative manner in order to create distance between him/herself and others, ultimately becoming detached. A reduced sense of personal accomplishment refers to heightened feelings of ineffectiveness at work in terms of not making a difference and/or having a positive impact with clients and coworkers (Maslach, 2003; Maslach and Jackson, 1981; Maslach et al., 2001). While some studies have used a composite measure of burnout or measured only one dimension (typically emotional exhaustion), the current study included all three dimensions.

Past research of the predictors of police burnout

Among officers in a US Southern agency, perceived promotional opportunity had a negative association with emotional exhaustion and perceived rule inflexibility of the agency had a positive relationship with burnout (Gaines and Jermier, 1983). In a study of career stages among US officers from a New York agency, those in the 16 to 25 year point in their careers had higher levels of emotional burnout and depersonalisation burnout than did officers in other career stages (Cannizzo and Liu, 1995). Among US officers from Baltimore, Maryland, trust in partner, social support from family/friends and stress briefings available at work were negatively associated with a single item measure of burnout (i.e., ‘I feel burned out from my job’) (Dowler, 2005). In yet another study with the Baltimore police, job stress and negative work exposures were positively related to a composite measure of burnout for both male and female officers, but unfair workplace treatment had a positive association for men, but not women (McCarty et al., 2007). In a third study of the Baltimore police, job stress and workplace stressors were associated with higher levels of a composite measure of burnout (Gershon et al., 2009).

Perceived dangerousness of the job, perceived unfairness at work and a composite measure of work-family conflict each had a positive association with a composite measure of burnout among officers with 12 US police agencies, while organisational social support had a negative association (McCarty and Skogan, 2012). Among sergeants at a US Midwestern police agency, unfair workplace treatment and a composite measure of work-family conflict had positive associations with both emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation, and positive views of peers and supervisors had a negative association on emotional burnout; however, positive views of peers and supervisors only had a negative association with depersonalisation burnout for female sergeants (McCarty, 2013). Among US Southern and Southwestern officers, job stress had a positive association with a composite measure of burnout (Russell, 2014). A composite measure of work-family conflict was reported to have a positive association with a composite measure of burnout among officers from an unidentified department (Burke, 1988).

A composite measure of work hassles was correlated to the burnout dimensions of emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation, but not to reduced sense of personal accomplishment in a study involving Canadian officers (Kohan and Mazmanian, 2003). A composite measure of work-family conflict was positively associated with the emotional dimension of burnout among Australian officers (Hall et al., 2010). The stressors of high job demands, a lack of information and a lack of control were associated with higher burnout among United Kingdom officers (Houdmont, 2012). A composite measure of workplace stressors was positively related to all three burnout dimensions among United Kingdom officers (Houdmont, 2013).

Among Norwegian officers, a composite measure of work-family conflict was positively associated with emotional burnout and depersonalisation burnout (Mikkelsen and Burke, 2004). In another study involving Norwegian officers, those with 15 or more years of tenure had higher levels of depersonalisation but were similar in their levels of emotional exhaustion and reduced sense of personal accomplishment as compared to officers with less than 15 years of tenure (Burke and Mikkelsen, 2006). Social support of coworkers and supervisors was found to have a negative association with all three dimensions of burnout and a composite measure of work-family conflict was observed to have a positive association with the burnout dimensions in a third study involving Norwegian officers (Martinussen et al., 2007). The stressors of poor leadership, threats of violence, role conflicts and time pressures were all positively related to a composite measure of burnout among Finnish officers (Vuorensyrja and Mälkiä, 2011).

The stressors of lack of reciprocity from the organisation, coworkers and citizens were associated with greater depersonalisation among Dutch officers. A lack of reciprocity from the organisation and coworkers was associated with higher emotional exhaustion, and a lack of reciprocity from coworkers and citizens was related to greater sense of reduced accomplishment (Kop et al., 1999). The variable emotional work demands was associated with higher emotional dissonance, and, in turn, greater burnout (a composite measure of emotional and depersonalisation) in another study involving Dutch officers (Bakker and Heuven, 2006). Among Swiss officers, a composite measure of workplace stressors was found to contribute to emotional burnout (Manzoni and Eisner, 2006).

Among Israeli officers, a composite measure of work stressors had a positive link with a composite measure of burnout (Malach Pines and Keinan, 2005, 2006, 2007). A composite measure of excessive job demands was positively associated with emotional burnout, and a composite measure of a lack of work resources was positively related to a reduced sense of personal accomplishment among South African officers; however, neither of these variables was linked with the depersonalisation dimension of burnout (Weise et al., 2003). In another study of South African officers, a lack of resources and job demands were stressors (i.e., factors that place strain on a person) that were positively associated with all three burnout dimensions (Mostert and Rothmann, 2006). Among Chinese officers, job stress had a negative association with depersonalisation. Job boredom and stress from training had a positive association with reduced personal accomplishment. Finally, excessive work demands had a positive association with emotional exhaustion (Wang et al., 2014). In a study of South Korean officers, a composite measure of work-family conflict had a positive relationship with a composite measure of burnout, and burnout, in turn, had a positive association with turnover intent (Yun et al., 2015). Finally, among Indian officers, role overload resulted in in higher emotional exhaustion, but had a non-significant association with the other two burnout dimensions (Suresh et al., 2014).

Four general conclusions can be gleaned from the above studies. First, there is support for the contention that workplace factors, particularly stressors (i.e., variables that place negative strain on a person), are associated with burnout of officers. Second, a good portion of the research has dealt with officers from Western nations, and there has been less research among officers from non-Western nations, such as India. Third, there is a need for more research on burnout among officers, especially in light of the harmful outcomes associated with it. Fourth, there has not been a study that has examined the relationship between the four types of work-family conflict with the three burnout dimensions.

Work-family conflict

For many adults, work and home are two primary domains. Ideally, they go hand in hand and do not spill over into one another causing problems. Unfortunately, this not the case for everyone. Sometimes problems in one domain spill over into the other domain, resulting in work-family conflict (Howard et al., 2004). Work-family conflict is ‘a form of inter-role conflict in which the role pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incompatible in some respect. That is, participation in the work (family) role is made more difficult by participation in the family (work) role’ (Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985: 77). Work-family conflict can be bidirectional. Work issues and problems can spill over into the home domain, and likewise, home issues and problems can spill over into the work domain (Brough and O’Driscoll, 2005; Netemeyer et al., 1996). The first is defined as work-based conflict and the later as family-based conflict.

Work-based conflict can be further divided into the areas of time-based conflict, behaviour-based conflict and strain-based conflict (Amstadm et al., 2011; Netemeyer et al., 1996). Time-based conflicts occur when work’s time demands or scheduling interferes with or causes conflict with the home life. Behaviour-based conflict is when work roles (e.g. enforcing rules) and home roles (e.g. being nurturing) are incompatible with one another and result in problems and conflict. Strain-based conflict occurs when the demands and tensions follow the person home and negatively affect the quality of home life, causing strain and conflict (Brough and O’Driscoll, 2005; Netemeyer et al., 1996). In the current study, four types of work-family conflict (i.e., time-based, behaviour-based, strain-based and family-based) were included to see how they were associated with the three dimensions of burnout among Indian police officers.

Focus of current study

As previously indicated, burnout is seen as the result of prolonged from workplace factors rather than personal characteristics (Martinussen et al., 2007; Maslach, 1982; Vuorensyrja and Mälkiä, 2011). Maslach pointed out that ‘among the general public, the conventional wisdom about burnout is that the problem lies within the person. Some argue that the person who burns out is trying too hard and doing too much, whereas others believe that the weak and incompetent burn out. However, research results have not supported the argument that burnout is related to a person’s disposition’ (2003: 191). Both Maslach and Jackson (1981) and Cherniss (1980) postulated that workplace factors were major contributors to burnout. As noted by Maslach, burnout is ‘chronic strain that results from an incongruence, or misfit, between the worker and the job’ (2003: 189).

The job strain model (also known as the job demands model) provides a theoretical foundation for understanding why different types of work-family conflict would be positively related with job burnout among Indian officers. The job strain model holds that excessive demands place psychological strain on the employee, and, in time, this strain results in negative outcomes, such as burnout (Karasek, 1979; Lambert et al., 2013). Stressors result in strain, and work-family conflict is a stressor (Lambert et al., 2013). Unlike many other occupations, police agencies operate 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, including holidays. In addition, many posts cannot be vacated when officers are out on leave, such as sick time, which requires overtime, including mandatory overtime. Unexpected issues and emergencies can arise, requiring officers to stay past their normal shift or to come in during time off from work (Kinman et al., 2012). Moreover, most Indian officers work more than 10 hours on their scheduled days and can be called into work if and when the need arises, and this type of scheduling can cause conflicts for officers (Selokar et al., 2011). Time-based conflict was hypothesised to have a positive association with all three burnout dimensions.

The roles often adapted by officers to deal with all the problems they encounter tend not to be conducive to the roles expected at home (Mikkelsen and Burke, 2004). Likewise, ideal home roles of being open, supportive and nurturing are typically not expected in the workplace for officers. Not all people can easily switch roles depending on the domain, and, when they cannot, behaviour-based conflict is likely to occur. Behaviour-based conflict was hypothesised to have a positive association with the three dimensions of burnout.

As previously indicated, police work is filled with demands and strains, including dealing with horrible crimes, interaction with aggravated citizens, victims and suspects, and workplace politics and disagreements. These strains can follow an officer home, resulting in conflict. As such, strain-based conflict was hypothesised to have a positive relationship with each of the burnout dimensions.

Officers, like many others, can face problems at home, such as arguments with family members, deaths, disruptive behaviours and other strains. While told by work to leave these problems at home, this does not always occur. Home issues can spill over and result in problems at work. This stressor can result in psychological strain for an officer, expressing itself in the form of psychological fatigue from the job, treating others as impersonal objects and reduced feelings of work effectiveness. Family-based work-family conflict was hypothesised to have a positive association with the three burnout dimensions.

Brief overview of Indian police in general and the Haryana police

Although the national government maintains several central law enforcement agencies and certain large cities maintain a metropolitan police force, the bulk of the responsibility for Indian policing is carried out by India’s 28 state police agencies. Each state police agency is headed by a Director General of Police, responsible for the operation and control of the police in the respective state. The state police are further divided into districts, with a police force under the direction of a Superintendent of Police. Districts are divided into sub-districts, sub-districts are broken down into police circles, and within police circles are police stations. Larger cities operate a metropolitan police force, answering to a Director General. The seven Union territories also have their own police forces, which are run by the Union government (Dhillon, 2011; Raghavan, 1999; Verma and Gavirneni, 2006). The state governments have a good deal of control through the hiring and training of officers (Verma and Gavirneni, 2006). The Indian Police Services officers are appointed (and removed) by the federal government and, to that extent, the central government has some control (Lambert et al., 2015).

The Indian State of Haryana has an area of 17,070 square miles and a population of 25.4 million. The population density is 573 per square kilometre (i.e., 1,485 per square mile), which is higher than the Indian national average of 382 people per square kilometre. In the 2011 census, approximately 35% of the population of Haryana resided in what was classified as an urban area. Haryana is adjacent to the national capital of New Delhi, and is considered a relatively well-developed state (Indian Census, 2012).

The Haryana Police is a force of about 57,000 officers and is divided into 21 districts. The district unit is responsible for all policing activities, including investigations, patrol, traffic, security of important government officials and intelligence gathering. The present study was conducted in Rohtak and Sonipat, which have a force of about 3,000 total officers between the two. The two districts serve a total population of about 2.5 million. These two districts are each divided into 21 police stations (Haryana Police, 2015).

Method

Participants

Using systematic random sampling, the data were collected from a survey that was distributed to 1,000 of the 3,000 officers in the Rohtak and Sonipat districts of Haryana State of India. A roster of all officers was created and every third officer from this list was selected to receive the survey packet containing a cover letter, the survey and a return envelope. The back method of translation was used, wherein survey materials (cover letter and survey) were translated into Hindi, the national language of India, and then a second scholar translated the survey back into English to determine whether there were any translation problems (Harkness et al., 2003). In the cover letter, the randomly selected officers were informed of the focus of the study, that participation was voluntary and that responses would be anonymous. The selected officers received the envelopes during their daily roll call. Officers were informed that they were not to put their names or any other identifying marks on the surveys, that they could stop taking the survey at any time, that there were no rewards for taking the survey and that there were no punishments for not taking the survey. The officers were instructed that they could take the survey at a time and location of their choosing.

The survey was a questionnaire with over 150 questions which asked about a wide array of demographic questions (e.g. age, gender, marital status, number of children under 16 years old living at home, the age(s) of the child(ren) living at home, tenure on the job, tenure position/rank, district posting and highest educational level), views of the work environment (e.g. job variety, job autonomy, work-family conflict, training, distributive justice, procedural justice, formalisation, etc.) and work attitudes and outcomes (e.g. job burnout, job involvement, affective organisational commitment, moral organisational commitment, continuance commitment, organisational citizenship behaviours, job satisfaction, life satisfaction, turnover intent, etc.). While the questionnaire asked about a wide range of work areas, the focus of the current study was the association the different types of work-family conflict had with the three burnout dimensions; these were the measures selected for the current study, along with the demographic characteristics of age, gender, marital status, having children 16 years or younger at home, tenure with the Haryana police agency, highest educational level, position and district.

Participating officers returned the surveys in the unmarked envelope provided with the survey. A total of 827 surveys were returned, which was a response rate of approximately 83%. For the responding officers, the median age was 34, and ranged from 21 to 57 years of age. Approximately 88% of surveyed officers were men. In terms of marital status, 88% were currently married, 11% were single and 1% were divorced, separated or widowed. The number of children aged 16 or younger living at home with the officer ranged from 0 to 9, with the median number of aged 16 or younger living at home being 2. About 17% of the participating officers had no children at home, 20% had one child at home, 46% had two children living at home, 14% had three children at home, and 4% had four or more children living at home. The median tenure with the Haryana police organisation was 11 years, ranging from less than 1 year to 39 years. In terms of highest educational level, 23% had a Matric degree (grade 10), 35% had a Senior degree (grade 12), 35% had an undergraduate college degree and 7% had a graduate or professional degree. In terms of work position, 69% were line officers (i.e., held the rank of constable). Approximately 50% of the participants were assigned to work in the Rohtak district and the other half were assigned to the Sonipat district. Based on information received from the Haryana police agency, the participants appeared to be similar in terms of age, gender, rank, educational level and tenure. No confirmatory information on marital status or number of children living at home could be obtained.

Variables

Dependent variables

The burnout dimensions of emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and reduced sense of personal accomplishment were the dependent variables in this study. The burnout items were adapted from Wright and Saylor (1991). In the current study, while the Maslach Burnout Inventory is often used, we elected to use the Wright and Salyor burnout measures because they have been commonly used in past criminal justice published research and there was no fee for their usage. The burnout items were reviewed both by the authors and other scholars, and the selected burnout items appeared to have face validity. In addition, the survey was pilot tested among a small focus group.

All of the burnout items were measured using a five-point Likert response scale ranging from strongly disagree (coded 1) to strongly agree (coded 5). A factor analysis was conducted using the burnout items. The factor analysis results suggested that the items had convergent validity and unidimensionality, and all the factor loading scores were 0.50 or higher. The general rule of thumb is to use factor loading scores of at least 0.40 or higher, and those above 0.50 are viewed as good (Kim and Mueller, 1978).

The burnout dimension of emotional burnout was measured using four items that asked about being emotionally drained from work (e.g. ‘I am emotionally drained at the end the day from my job’ and ‘Working with others is an emotional strain for me’). The four items had a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.71 for internal reliability. The responses to the four items were summed to form an index.

Depersonalisation was measured using seven items (e.g. ‘I feel that I have become more callous toward my coworkers’ and ‘I feel that I treat some citizens as if they were impersonal objects’). The depersonalisation burnout items had a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.75. The responses to these items were summed together to form an index.

A reduced sense of personal accomplishment at work was measured using six items (e.g. ‘I feel that I am effective in solving problems at work’ (reverse coded) and ‘I have the ability to deal effectively with the problems of citizens’ (reverse coded). The Cronbach’s alpha for these items was 0.72, and the responses were summed together to form an index.

Confirmatory factor analysis using AMOS was conducted on all the burnout items. The measures were within the acceptable range (goodness of fit index = .97, adjusted goodness of fit index = .96, relative fit index = .95 and normed fit index = .96).

Independent variables

The independent variables of focus were the four dimensions of work-family conflict. The work-family conflict items were adapted from Carlson et al. (2000). All of the work-family conflict items were measured using a five-point Likert response scale ranging from strongly disagree (coded 1) to strongly agree (coded 5). Factor analysis was conducted for the work-family conflict items. All the items loaded on the predicted factor had factor loading scores of 0.50 or higher.

Time-based conflict was measured using five items (e.g. ‘My time off from work does not really match other family members’ schedules and/or my social needs’ and ‘I often have to miss important family or social activities/events because of my job’). The time-based conflict items had a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.65.

Behaviour-based conflict was measured using five items (e.g. ‘The behaviours I use at work do not help me to be a better person at home’ and ‘I find it hard to switch from being a police officer when I go home’), and these five items had a Cronbach’s alpha of .60.

Strain-based conflict was measured using an index comprised of six items (e.g. ‘Because of this job, I am often irritable at home’ and ‘I frequently argue with my spouse/family members about my job’). These items had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.75.

Family-based conflict was measured using five items (e.g. ‘I sometimes have to miss work due to pressing social/family issues or problems’ and ‘Due to stress at home, I am often preoccupied with family matters at work’). The five items had a Cronbach’s alpha of .69. For the four types of work-family conflict, the items were summed to form a respective additive index.

Finally, personal (demographic) characteristics were included more as control than explanatory variables and are often included on work-family conflict studies. Specifically, the following personal characteristics were included: age, gender, marital status, having a child or children 16 and under at home, tenure at the agency, educational level, position and district. Age was measured in continuous years. Gender was measured as a dichotomous variable where women coded as 0 and men coded as 1. Marital status was collapsed to not being married (coded 0) and currently married (coded 1). The measure of number of children 16 years old or younger at home was collapsed to a dichotomous variable coded 0 for officers with no children 16 or younger living at home and 1 for officers with one or more children 16 or younger living at home. Tenure with the Haryana police department was measured in continuous years. Highest educational level was collapsed into dichotomous variable representing whether the officer had some type of college degree (coded 1) or not (coded 0). Position represented whether the officer was a constable (line officer – coded 1) or not (coded 0). Finally, district was measured according to the district where the officer was assigned to work, with Rohtak coded as 1 and Sonipat coded as 0.

Results

The typical responding officer was a constable (line officer), who was a man in his mid-thirties without a college degree. The mean age of the officers who completed the survey was 36.53, with a standard deviation of 9.46. As previously indicated, about 88% of the officers indicated that they were male. Additionally, approximately 88% indicated that they were currently married, and 83% noted that they had one or more children living at home who were 16 years old or younger. The mean tenure with the Haryana police agency was 13.81 years, with a standard deviation of 9.20. About 58% of the respondents had no type of college degree. The majority (69%) were line officers. Finally, the participants were evenly split between the districts of Rohtak and Sonipat.

The univariate statistics for the variables are presented in Table 1. None of the variables were constants (i.e., there was variation in all the variables). The data conformed approximately to a normal distribution based on the skewness and kurtosis statistics. Likewise, the median and mean values for the variables are similar to one another, also suggesting a normal distribution. All the alpha values were above .60, which is typically seen as acceptable. Furthermore, the burnout and work-family conflict items loaded on the predicted factor in factor analysis, with factor loading scores of .50 or higher, which is viewed as acceptable.

Table 1.

Univariate statistics of study variables.

Variable	Description	Min	Max	Med	Mean	SDev
Age	Age in years	21	57	34	36.53	9.46
Gender	88% male (coded 1) 12% female (coded 0)	0	1	1	0.88	0.33
Married	88% currently married (coded 1) 12% not married (coded 0)	0	1	1	0.88	0.33
Tenure	Tenure in years at agency	0	39	11.00	13.81	9.20
Ed level	42% college degree (coded 1) 58% no college degree (coded 0)	0	1	0	0.42	0.49
Position	69% line officer (coded 1) 31% other position (coded 0)	0	1	1	0.69	0.46
District	50% Rohtak District (coded 1) 50% Sonipat District (coded 0)	0	1	0.50	0.50	0.50
Time-based	5 item additive index, α = .65	5	25	19	18.49	3.72
Behavior-based	5 item additive index, α = .60	5	25	15	15.32	3.72
Strain-based	6 item additive index, α = .75	6	30	18	18.06	4.95
Family-based	5 item additive index, α = .69	5	25	14	14.02	4.09
Emotional	4 item additive index, α = .71	4	19	10	10.23	3.29
Depersonalisation	7 item additive index, α = .75	7	29	15	15.61	4.84
Accomplishment	6 item additive index, α = .72	6	30	13	13.33	3.47

Note. Min stands for minimum value, Max for maximum value, Med for median value, Mean for mean value, SDev for standard deviation value, Ed level for educational level, Time-based for time-based work-family conflict, Behavior-based for behavior-based work-family conflict, Strain-based for strain-based work-family conflict, Family-based for family-based work-family conflict, Emotional for emotional burnout, Depersonalisation for depersonalisation burnout, Accomplishment for reduced sense of personal accomplishment burnout, and α for Cronbach’s alpha, a measure for internal reliability. The total number of participants was 827.

A correlation matrix for the variables is reported in Table 2. Among the control variables, none had statistically significant correlations with either emotional burnout or depersonalisation burnout. Both gender and having a child at home had significant correlations with a reduced sense of accomplishment. Male officers in general reported a lower sense of accomplishment compared to female officers. Officers who had one or more children at home tended to report a lower sense of accomplishment on the job compared to their counterparts with no children at home. The remaining control variables had non-significant correlations with a sense of reduced personal accomplishment. All four types of work-family conflict had significant positive correlations with both emotional and depersonalisation dimensions of burnout. Time-based conflict, strain-based conflict and family-based conflict all had a positive significant correlation with the reduced accomplishment dimension of burnout. Behaviour-based conflict, however, had a non-significant correlation with this dimension of burnout.

Table 2.

Correlation matrix of study variables.

Variable	1.	2.	3.	4.	5.	6.	7.	8.	9.	10.	11.	12.	13.	14.
1. Age	1.00
2. Gender	.20**	1.00
3. Married	.37**	.05	1.00
4. Child	.46**	.08	.68**	1.00
5. Tenure	.59**	.16**	.36**	.45**	1.00
6. Ed lev	−.32**	−.17**	.00	−.12**	−.32**	1.00
7. Position	−.68**	−.11**	−.17**	−.21**	−.59**	.17**	1.00
8. District	−.05	−.06	−.07*	.04	.04	−.15**	.10**	1.00
9. Time	.11**	.04	.00	−.03	−.13**	.04	.05	.07	1.00
10. Behav	−.13**	.07*	−.09**	−.12**	−.13**	.05	.05	−.01	.36**	1.00
11. Strain	−.06	.06	.05	.06	−.07	−.04	.05	.11**	.54**	.40**	1.00
12. Family	−.06	.03	−.08*	−.06	−.08*	.01	.02	.00	.23**	.37**	.41**	1.00
13. Emot	−.02	.03	−.02	−.01	−.04	−.01	.01	.04	.16**	.43**	.34**	.57**	1.00
14. Deper	.04	−.03	.01	−.02	.02	−.03	−.04	−.04	.10**	.39**	.13**	.50**	.53**	1.00
15. Accom	.01	.08*	.03	.08*	.02	−.01	.00	.03	.16**	.01	.11**	.24**	.27**	.26**

Note. See Table 1 for a description of the variables and how they are coded. Child stands for child(ren) at home, Ed lev for educational level, Time for time-based work-family conflict, Behav for behavior-based work-family conflict, Strain for strain-based work-family conflict, Family for family-based work-family conflict, Emot for emotional burnout, Deper for depersonalisation burnout, and Accom for reduced sense of personal accomplishment burnout.

*p ≤ .05 **p ≤ .01

Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression equations were estimated with emotional burnout, depersonalisation burnout and reduced sense of personal accomplishment burnout as the dependent variables. The results are reported in Table 3. Based on the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) scores (not reported), multicollinearity was not an issue. The issues of outliers, influential cases, normality, linearity and homoscedasticity of residuals, and independence of errors in the regression analysis were also tested for and addressed (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2013).

Table 3.

Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression results for effects of the types of work-family conflict on job burnout dimensions.

	Emotional burnout		Depersonalisation burnout		Reduced sense of personal accomplishment burnout
Predictor variable	B	β	B	β	B	β
Age	0.02	.05	0.06	.11	−0.03	−.08
Gender	−0.22	−.02	−1.09	−.07*	1.06	.10**
Married	−0.06	−.01	0.80	.05	−0.21	−.02
Child at home	0.23	.03	−0.33	−.02	0.94	.10
Tenure	−0.02	−.06	−0.03	−.06	−0.01	−.01
Educational level	0.03	.01	−0.21	−.02	0.20	.03
Position	−0.22	−.03	−0.34	−.03	−0.22	−.03
District	0.27	.04	−0.10	−.01	0.46	.06
Time-based	0.09	.10*	0.40	.31**	0.34	.35**
Behavior-based	0.21	.25**	0.47	.36**	−0.06	−.06
Strain-based	0.06	.10*	−0.01	−.01	0.16	.22**
Family-based	0.38	.46**	0.53	.44**	0.21	.24**
F value (df)	35.19** (12,674)		38.48** (12,673)		10.56** (12,666)
R-squared	.38		.41		.16

Note. See Table 1 for a description of the variables and how they are coded. B represents the unstandardized coefficient, β the standardized coefficient, and df the degrees of freedom. Time-based stands for time-based work-family conflict, Behavior-based for behavior-based work-family conflict, Strain-based for strain-based work-family conflict, and Family-based for family-based work-family conflict. The total number of participants was 827.

*p ≤ .05 **p ≤ .01.

For the emotional burnout equation, the R-Squared value was .38, which means that the independent variables accounted for approximately 38% of the observed variance in the dependent variable. None of the control variables had a statistically significant association with this dimension of burnout. All four types of work-family conflict had statistically significant positive relationships with the emotional exhaustion index, which means increases in each of these variables were associated with increases in the emotional exhaustion variable. Based on the standardised regression coefficients (see β column), the significant independent variables can be ranked on the magnitude of the relationship with the dependent variable. Family-based conflict had the largest-sized effect, followed by behaviour-based conflict. Time-based and strain-based conflict were tied for having the smallest-sized effect.

The independent variables explained approximately 41% of the observed variance in the depersonalisation variable. Gender was the only control variable to have a significant association, with female officers reporting on average higher levels of depersonalisation than male officers. Time-based, behaviour-based and family-based conflict all had significant positive relationships with depersonalisation. Contrary to our hypothesis, strain-based conflict had a non-significant effect. Family-based conflict had the largest-sized effect, followed closely by behaviour-based conflict and then time-based conflict.

Only 16% of the variance of the reduced sense of personal accomplishment variable was accounted by the control and work-family conflict variables. Gender was the only control variable to have a significant effect in the multivariate analysis, with male officers reporting a lower sense of personal accomplishment. Time-based, strain-based and family-based conflict each had a significant positive relationship with the dependent variable. The behaviour-based type of work-family conflict, however, had a non-significant association with the reduced sense of personal accomplishment on the job index. Time-based conflict had the largest effect, followed by family-based conflict, and strain-based conflict.

Discussion and conclusion

For some people, the domains of work and home are in harmony with one another. For others, these two salient domains are unbalanced, spilling into one another and causing problems. Overall, the results support the job strain model with work-family conflict being a stressor linked with higher levels of the different dimensions of burnout. Ten of the twelve hypotheses were supported. All four forms of work-family conflict were associated with higher levels of emotional exhaustion from the job. Three of the four types of work-family conflict were positively associated to depersonalisation and a reduced sense of personal accomplishment from the job. It makes sense that the different forms of work-family conflict were linked to burnout. Over time, stressors wear individuals down, which can manifest itself in different forms of burnout.

In the multivariate analyses, time-based conflict had significant positive associations with all three burnout dimensions. It is significant to note that working hours of Indian officers tend to be very long. This may be because of lack of a proper shift system for officers. Another reason is the shortage of officers being faced by many states, including Haryana. Considering the long work hours coupled with time needed to attend to family matters, officers often face time pressures, which can take their toll. Time-conflict appears to have a greater effect on personal accomplishment and depersonalisation than it did for emotional burnout.

Interventions are needed to help officers avoid time-based conflict, and, when it does occur, how to cope with it in a positive manner. The nature of policing makes it doubtful that all forms of time-based conflict can be avoided. Police services need to be offered around the clock and year round. Calls for assistance and crimes cannot be scheduled. It is essential to find out from officers why time-based conflict is occurring, and if it is possible to reduce this strain. Focus groups should be conducted among officers to learn more about this type of work-family conflict. In addition, training should be provided to officers so they are aware of this stressor and possible positive coping mechanisms rather than relying on negative coping mechanisms, such as keeping it bottled up. If nothing is done, emotional exhaustion, treating people in a callous manner and feeling ineffective at work become more likely.

In the multivariate analyses, behaviour-based conflict had positive relationships with emotional and depersonalisation burnout. Many police work roles can harm the emotional attachment between family and friends at home, and this can weigh heavily on many. The frustration resulting from conflict in roles can lead to treating others in a depersonalised manner and a feeling of emotional fatigue of the job. Interventions are needed to help avoid or reduce this form of work-family conflict. One possible intervention might be workshops which detail the issue of behaviour-based conflict and how officers can reduce it.

Contrary to our hypothesis, behaviour-based conflict had a non-significant association with reduced sense of personal accomplishment burnout. The results could be due to random chance; additional studies are needed. Another explanation is that this type of work-family conflict plays no significant role in shaping this dimension of burnout among the Indian officers surveyed, or they are not aware of how their behaviour in one domain is affecting the other domain.

The current findings suggest that strain-based conflict is a stressor that can contribute to burnout. This form of work-family conflict was positively related to the emotional and reduced sense of accomplishment dimensions of burnout. Dealing with uncooperative citizens, hostile suspects and a bureaucratic organisation can result in workplace frustrations and problems, which some officers take home, resulting in strain with loved ones and friends. In the end, the strain at home appears to follow officers back to work, resulting in emotional exhaustion and a feeling of being ineffective at the job. Strain-based conflict may be minimised by providing interventions and coping strategies, such as employee assistance programmes, peer support groups, mediation and access to a psychologist. As noted by Kaur et al. (2013), Indian officers need to be provided with interventions to deal with stress using positive coping methods rather than maladaptive ones.

Contrary to our hypothesis, strain-based conflict did not have a significant association with depersonalisation. Again, the lack of a significant finding could be due to random chance. Alternatively, once the other types of work-family conflict are taken into account, strain-based conflict might not be a significant predictor of depersonalisation. There is a need for additional research to determine whether this finding can be replicated or not.

Furthermore, having the expectation that home problems will stay at home and not spill over to work is not realistic based on the current findings. Family-based conflict as a stressor had a significant relationship with all the burnout dimensions. Police administrators need to be aware that family-based conflict appears to contribute to burnout. Assuming the current results are replicated, interventions are needed to help reduce the occurrence of family-based conflict and its effects. Employee assistance programmes may be one type of intervention. A more holistic approach for employee assistance would be to involve both officers and their families in addressing this stressor. Workplace social support systems should be explored to determine whether they can help deal with the negative effects of work-family conflict.

Except for gender, the personal characteristic variables had non-significant associations with the burnout dimensions in the multivariate analysis, and none of the personal characteristic variables had a significant association with the emotional burnout variable. This is good news for police administrators, because these variables are either difficult to change or should not be manipulated. Female officers were more likely to be higher on the depersonalisation index as compared to their male colleagues. Conversely, male officers were on average higher on the reduced sense of accomplishment index as compared to women.

It is important to note that past research has found a mixed relationship between gender and burnout. Among officers in Baltimore in the US, no difference between men and women was found on a composite measure of burnout (McCarty et al., 2007). Among Dutch officers, Kop et al. (1999) reported no difference in burnout level for men and women. In a study of officers from four US Midwestern police agencies, Hawkins (2001) found that male officers had higher levels of depersonalisation than female officers, but both men and women were similar in their levels of emotional burnout. In a study of officers from two eastern US police agencies, men had higher levels of depersonalisation and women higher levels of emotional exhaustion (Johnson, 1991). Among officers in New York in the US, men reported higher levels of depersonalisation and a greater sense of personal accomplishment on the job, and women reported higher levels of emotional exhaustion (Cannizzo and Liu, 1995). Among sergeants at a US Midwestern police agency, women reported higher levels of emotional burnout, while men reported higher levels of depersonalisation burnout (McCarty, 2013). In a study involving Indian officers, bivariate tests indicated female officers had higher levels of emotional and depersonalisation burnout than men, but there was no gender difference for reduced sense of personal accomplishment (Suresh et al., 2014). Based on past findings, the relationship of gender with burnout could be contextual and vary by police agency.

The current study has limitations. It was a single exploratory study involving officers from the Rohtak and Sonipat districts of the State of Haryana in India. The findings of the current study may not apply to officers in other districts or Indian states. The findings need to be replicated across different parts of India. Moreover, the findings need to be replicated among officers in other countries. The relationships of different types of work-family conflict with the various burnout dimensions may be situational and contextual (i.e., the relationships varying across different police agencies not only in India but the globe). With future research, the relationship between different forms for work-family conflict with burnout will be better understood, allowing for an understanding of which ones are universal and which ones are situational and contextual. While the factor analysis results supported the decision to create the indexes, the alpha values could be higher. In addition, while the fit indexes for confirmatory factor analysis of the burnout measures were acceptable, they were in the lower part of the acceptable range. As such, future research should explore how to improve the measurement of the different dimensions of burnout among Indian police officers.

Future research is needed to examine the relationship of the different types of work-family conflict with other outcome areas, such as job performance, absenteeism, turnover intent, job involvement, job satisfaction, organisational commitment and organisational citizenship (i.e., going beyond what is expected at work). There is a need to study what interventions are successful and cost-effective at reducing the four types of work-family conflict among officers. Future studies need to explore other factors which may contribute to burnout among officers. For example, the R-Squared for the reduced sense of personal accomplishment dimension of burnout was .16, which means that other factors than those in the current study account for 84% of the observed variance in this dependent variable. These other factors need to be identified so that they can be understood and addressed. The use of cross-sectional surveys did not allow for causality to be demonstrated in the current study. Longitudinal studies are needed for empirically demonstrating causal relationships of the different types of work-family conflict with the various dimensions of burnout among officers. Finally, the consequences (e.g. life satisfaction, health, etc.) of three dimensions of burnout among officers need to be researched. Clearly there is a need for far more research in the areas of work-family conflict and burnout among officers.

In closing, nothing positive has been attributed to the burnout of officers; therefore, there is a need to reduce burnout among officers. Police officers are critical public servants who perform myriad tasks and duties. They are also a valuable resource for their agencies. As such, burnout is a serious threat not only to officers, but also to their employing organisations and their communities. The first step is to explore and identify possible factors which may play a role in burnout. The current findings suggest that police administrators should take note of work-family conflict and its possible role with burnout. Efforts should be taken to reduce work-family conflict among officers, as well as offering interventions to help officers cope effectively with the conflict between work and home domains.

At the very least, the authors hope this study will spur more research on how workplace factors are associated with officer burnout not only in India but other nations, particularly developing nations. With empirically-supported information, it should be possible to combat burnout among Indian officers. Without more solid knowledge in this area, making burnout prevention recommendations to administrators will continue to be problematic and haphazard. In the end, too much is at stake to ignore how workplace factors may be linked with burnout not only among Indian officers but those across the globe. Additional research on officers in myriad nations will provide salient information of which workplace factors are contextual on their relationship with burnout and which one are more universal in their effects.

Footnotes

Authors’ note

Eric Lambert is now affiliated with Department of Criminal Justice, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank Janet Lambert for proofreading and editing the paper. Additionally, the authors thank the editor and the anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions to improve the paper.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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