Individual characteristics,secondary trauma and burnout in police sexual and violent offending teams

Abstract

The traumatic nature of work conducted by specialist police staff places them at risk of developing work-related stress and psychological health difficulties. The study examined risk and resilience factors for secondary trauma, burnout and mental ill-health. A convenience sample of police staff (N = 78) from several specialist sexual and violent offending teams completed an online survey. Results indicated that coping self-efficacy, dispositional mindfulness and psychological flexibility are resilience factors and insecure attachment style is a risk factor for secondary trauma, burnout and mental ill-health. Psychological approaches may be beneficial in promoting a resilient police workforce and maintaining operational effectiveness.

Keywords

Secondary-trauma burnout resilience attachment

Introduction

Police specialist sexual and violent offending teams frequently have contact with traumatised individuals, distressing situations and challenging subject matter (Atkinson-Tovar, 2003; Cross and Ashley, 2004; Karlsson and Christianson, 2003). Along with the rapid growth of the internet, one area of specialist policing that has expanded over the last decade is the investigation of online child sexual abuse (MacEachern et al., 2015). In 2017 the Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abuse in England and Wales was informed that suspected incidents of online child sexual abuse referred to the UK’s largest police force had increased by 700% over the previous three years (Bowcott, 2018).

Police staff investigating the production, possession and distribution of indecent images of children using electronic devices are often involved in lengthy investigations, requiring extensive contact with distressing material (Powell et al., 2014). As with other specialist police teams, this places staff at risk of experiencing secondary trauma, burnout and developing psychological difficulties (Powell et al., 2014; Tehrani, 2016; Turgoose et al., 2017). For example, recent research has highlighted the cognitive and emotional stress of homicide investigations on specialist police staff (Roach et al., 2017). Furthermore, child homicide investigations have been found to exacerbate the negative impact on staff due to both victim and investigator factors e.g. whether investigators have children the same age as the victim and the helplessness of children (Roach et al., 2018).

Research on secondary traumatic stress in the helping professions emerged in the 1980s, focusing upon emergency service workers (Dunning and Silva, 1980; Durham et al., 1985; Hartsough and Myers, 1985). Secondary trauma can be defined as the indirect traumatisation of a person through the stress of helping, wanting to help, or knowing about a traumatised individual or event (Figley, 1995). The term is often used interchangeably with compassion fatigue (Figley, 2002; Joinson, 1992) and is also synonymous with vicarious traumatisation (McCann and Pearlman, 1990), despite subtle differences in definition and use existing (Elwood et al., 2011; Stamm, 1997).

As with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), symptoms of secondary trauma include emotional arousal, avoidance and intrusive thoughts or memories. It is hypothesised to occur quickly and unexpectedly in the context of contact with one or more traumatic events (Elwood et al., 2011; Figley, 1995). The concept of secondary traumatisation developed from research on job burnout (Maslach, 1981; Maslach and Johnson, 1982). Unlike secondary trauma, burnout is hypothesised to emerge gradually in relation to long-term work-related stress, resulting in physical, emotional and psychological exhaustion (Maslach et al., 1996). It is not unique to those working with victims of trauma or the helping professions and leads to a sense of reduced professional accomplishment and difficulties in work performance (Maslach et al., 2001; Schaufeli et al., 2009).

In contrast to the constructs described above, compassion satisfaction can be understood as existing at the opposite end of the responses to work spectrum. It has been defined as the fulfilment a person receives from being able to do their work effectively and contribute to the wellbeing of others (Stamm, 2005). It is considered to be essential in achieving a balance between professional demand and personal reward. Compassion satisfaction has been found to increase motivation and enable workers to overcome work-based stresses and challenges (Collins and Long, 2003).

The prevalence of secondary trauma and burnout in a variety of helping professions is well-recognised (Elliott and Daley, 2012; Tehrani, 2010). However, despite the challenging nature of specialist sexual and violent offending police work, these staff remain an under-researched population (Turgoose et al., 2017). While previous research suggests a high proportion of specialist police staff cope well with the demands of their work (Perez et al., 2010; Powell et al., 2014; Wolak and Mitchell, 2009), it is also recognised that staff can experience a wide variety of trauma-related symptoms, including flashbacks, nightmares, overprotectiveness of children and a general disruption to personal relationships and social functioning (Burns et al., 2008; Krause, 2009; Perez et al., 2010; Powell et al., 2015; Wolak and Mitchell, 2009).

The potential ramifications of secondary trauma and burnout are far reaching, both for staff and employers. According to a recent survey of police forces in England and Wales, there has been a 72% increase in staff taking sick leave for psychological reasons since 2010, with mental ill-health now being the main reason for long-term sickness absence in particular areas (Dowling et al., 2017; Ingram, 2014; Pugh, 2016). Certain police forces with high levels of sickness absence have estimated the current cost of this to be in excess of £17 million per year (Owen, n.d.).

The existing literature has highlighted that individual characteristics play a role in determining how specialist police staff cope with their work (Burns et al., 2008; Powell et al., 2014). However, research is limited and there remains a lack of clarity regarding which individual characteristics are the most important risk and resilience factors. Tehrani (2016) examined the role of gender and personality in the development of secondary trauma in internet child abuse investigators and found a higher incidence of introversion and neuroticism in females, but low levels of secondary trauma in the sample overall. Turgoose et al. (2017) found longer-serving specialist police staff had higher levels of compassion fatigue, secondary trauma and burnout. However, while low trait empathy was found to be related to high burnout, empathy otherwise was not found to be related to secondary trauma or compassion fatigue.

The wider literature on psychological wellbeing has provided valuable insights into individual characteristics that enhance resilience and aid effective coping (Tugade et al., 2004). More specifically, studies have consistently shown the beneficial roles of dispositional mindfulness (Baer, 2003), broadly defined as non-judgmental awareness of and attention to one’s experience in the present moment (Kabat-Zinn, 1994); psychological flexibility (Fledderus et al., 2010), which refers to the capacity to mentally adapt and balance situational demands and competing desires (Kashdan and Rottenberg, 2010) and perceived self-efficacy (Schwarzer and Warner, 2013), conceptualised as a person’s belief of how well they can cope with adversity and exert influence in their own life (Bandura, 1997). This knowledge has already informed staff support programmes and interventions in a number of occupational settings (Lomas et al., 2017; Moran, 2015).

Additionally, research spanning several decades has highlighted the role of attachment style in influencing psychosocial functioning across the lifespan (Cassidy et al., 2013). Attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969) proposes that infants are biologically driven to form attachments with others to survive. The quality of the early attachment relationship between an infant and their primary caregiver is said to lead to the development of an enduring secure or insecure attachment style (Mikulincer et al., 2003). Attachment security is considered to provide an inner resource to deal with life’s challenges and adversity, while attachment insecurity is thought to lead to increased difficulties in coping and relating in times of stress (Mikulincer and Florian, 1998).

While an increasing number of studies have shown an association between attachment style and PTSD (Woodhouse et al., 2015), there is a paucity of research examining this relationship in the context of secondary trauma and burnout. Additionally, questions remain regarding the role of individual characteristics as risk and resilience factors in how specialist police staff cope with and are impacted by their work. Therefore, a clear gap in the literature exists, which the present study aims to address. It is intended that findings can be used to increase psychological wellbeing and improve support for at risk helping professions.

Aims and research questions

The aim of the study was to examine individual characteristics, secondary trauma and burnout in police specialist sexual and violent offending teams by answering the following research questions.

What levels of secondary trauma, burnout and compassion satisfaction are present and do these vary by gender?

Are levels of secondary trauma, burnout and compassion satisfaction related to length of service in specialist policing?

Which attachment style and individual characteristics are most associated with secondary trauma, burnout, compassion satisfaction and mental ill-health?

Method

Participants

The participants were 78 police staff from several North Wales Police specialist sexual and violent offending teams. The teams included those who have direct and/or indirect contact with both child and adult crime victims or offenders, including online child sexual abuse investigation and domestic violence support teams. To obtain the largest possible sample size, staff were eligible to participate if they worked for any of the North Wales Police specialist sexual and violent offending teams. No other exclusion criteria were applied. The sample was evenly distributed in terms of gender, with 47% male (n = 37) and 53% female (n = 41) participants. Regarding age and ethnicity, 67% were in the 35–54 years old category (n = 52) and 86% were White British (n = 67).

Procedure

The study was granted ethical approval by the Bangor University School of Psychology Ethics Committee, the Betsi Cadwaladr NHS Research and Development Internal Review Panel and the North Wales Police Ethics Committee. Online surveys (Jisc, 2017) was used to host the survey. Participants were recruited by a Detective Inspector from North Wales Police identifying relevant specialist police teams and inviting staff to participate by emailing them with the study information sheet. Once participants had consented to take part in the study, they were asked to complete the study self-report questionnaire measures. Upon completion of these, they were presented with debriefing information, including contact details for police occupational health support and advised to seek professional advice with any concerns regarding personal wellbeing. The survey was activated on 23 October 2017 and closed on 12 January 2018.

Measures

The Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale (STSS; Bride et al., 2004) is a 17-item self-report measure of secondary trauma in workplace settings comprising of three subscales. Respondents rate themselves on a Likert scale from 1 (never) to 5 (very often) regarding how frequently over the last week they experienced symptoms of intrusion (e.g. ‘I had disturbing dreams about my work with clients’), avoidance (e.g. ‘I felt discouraged about the future’) and arousal (e.g. ‘I was easily annoyed’). Bride (2007) suggested the following interpretation of scores: less than 28 (little or no secondary trauma), 28–37 (mild), 38–43 (moderate), 44–48 (high), 49 and above (severe). The STSS has been reported to have high levels of internal consistency and good validity (Bride et al., 2004). Only total STSS scores were used in the data analysis.

The Professional Quality of Life Scale (ProQOL-5; Stamm, 2009) is a 30-item self-report measure of the negative and positive effects of helping others who experience suffering and trauma comprising of three subscales. Respondents rate themselves on a Likert scale from 1 (never) to 5 (very often) regarding how frequently over the last 30 days they experienced compassion satisfaction (e.g. ‘I get satisfaction from being able to help people’), burnout (e.g. ‘I feel “bogged down” by the system’) and secondary trauma (e.g. ‘I jump or am startled by unexpected sounds’). Total scores for each subscale are calculated and equate to severity categories of low (22 or less), average (between 23 and 41) or high (42 or more). The ProQOL has been reported to be reliable, with α coefficients ranging from .85 to .94 (Figley and Stamm, 1996; Stamm, 2010). Only the burnout and compassion satisfaction scales of the ProQOL were used in the data analysis (other than for question 1) due to the use of the STSS in measuring secondary trauma.

The General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12; Goldberg, 1992) is a 12-item self-report measure designed to screen for general psychiatric morbidity (or ‘current mental ill-health’). Respondents rate themselves using a 4-point Likert scale (which can be scored 0, 1, 2, 3) regarding their health over the past few weeks, with questions focusing upon inability to carry out normal functions (e.g. ‘Been able to enjoy your normal day-to-day activities’) and appearance of new and distressing phenomena (e.g. ‘Lost much sleep over worry’). Higher scores equate to higher levels of mental distress. The GHQ-12 has been widely used and extensively validated in general and clinical populations worldwide (Hankins, 2008).

The Experiences in Close Relationships Questionnaire-Revised (ECR-R; Fraley et al., 2000) is a 36-item self-report measure of adult attachment style. Respondents rate themselves using a Likert scale ranging from 1 (‘not at all characteristic of me’) to 5 (‘very characteristic of me’) regarding how they generally feel in emotionally intimate relationships. Questions measure attachment-related anxiety (e.g. ‘I often worry that my partner will not want to stay with me’) and attachment-related avoidance (e.g. ‘I prefer not to be too close to romantic partners’). Total scores are calculated for each of the two subscales and mean scores equate to ranges from 1 (low) to 7 (high). The ECR-R has been found to display suitable convergent and discriminant validity as a measure of attachment in the romantic relationships domain (Sibley et al., 2005).

The Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ; Baer et al., 2006) is 36-item self-report measure of dispositional mindfulness derived from a factor analytic study of five independently developed mindfulness questionnaires. Respondents rate themselves on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from ‘Never or very rarely true of me’ to ‘Very often or always true of me’ in response to questions relating to the five subscales (observing, describing, acting with awareness, non-judging and non-reactivity). Total and mean scores can be calculated for each subscale and overall. Higher scores indicate higher use of mindfulness skills. Results have indicated that the FFMQ is a reliable and valid mindfulness measure (Choi, 2015). Only total FFMQ scores were used in the data analysis.

The Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II (AAQ-II; Bond et al., 2011) is a 10-item self-report measure of psychological flexibility and experiential avoidance. Respondents rate themselves on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (never true) to 7 (always true) regarding how true each statement is for them (e.g. ‘It’s OK if I remember something unpleasant’). Higher scores indicate greater psychological flexibility/lower scores indicate greater experiential avoidance. The authors have reported that the AAQ-II has appropriate discriminate validity and predicts a range of psychosocial outcomes consistent with its underlying theory (Bond et al., 2011).

The Coping Self-Efficacy Scale (CSE; Chesney et al., 2006) is a 26-item self-report measure of perceived ability to cope with life’s challenges. Respondents rate themselves on a Likert scale ranging from 0 (cannot do at all) to 10 (certain can do) regarding confidence to act when things aren’t going well (e.g. ‘Find solutions to your most difficult problems’). Higher scores indicate higher coping self-efficacy (three subscale scores can also be derived). Research has indicated that internal consistency and reliability are strong for all three factors of the questionnaire (Chesney et al., 2006). Only total CSE scores were used in the data analysis.

Data analysis

Power analysis was undertaken using G Power software (Faul et al., 2007), which indicated that for a medium effect size of r = .30 to be detected and a desired power of 80%, a sample size of 85 participants would be required, based on correlational analysis (assuming an α of 0.05, two-tailed). This approach was in line with a recent similar study (Turgoose et al., 2017). While the final sample size was just below this (N = 78), it was not deemed necessary to amend the plan for correlational analysis.

Characteristics of the sample were described using percentage, mean and standard deviation calculations. While most of the data were normally distributed (following inspection of QQ plots and the Shapiro–Wilk test results), this was not true for all measures. Where appropriate, both parametric (with bootstrapping) and non-parametric tests were run without change to the results. For consistency and comparison, we report only non-parametric test results. Spearman’s Rho correlations were used to assess the strength and significance of associations between the variables. The Mann–Whitney U test was used to compare group differences. All analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS 24.0 for Windows and a 95% (p<.05) significance level was applied.

Results

What levels of secondary trauma, burnout and compassion satisfaction are present and do these vary by gender?

To address research question 1, a frequency analysis was conducted to examine mean scores and severity ratings for the whole sample and by gender on measures of secondary trauma, burnout, and compassion satisfaction (Table 1). Mann–Whitney U tests were conducted to examine whether there were significant differences in mean scores by gender.

Table 1.

Mean secondary trauma, burnout and compassion satisfaction scores and severity ratings for the whole sample and by gender.

	Whole sample(N = 78)		Females(n = 41)		Males(n = 37)		Mann–Whitney
Measure	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	z statistic	p values
Secondary traumatic stress (STSS)	Mild		Mild		Moderate
	35.29	13.34	32.73	11.88	38.14	14.43	z = -1.487	p = .137
Burnout (ProQOL)	Average		Average		Average
	25.77	6.07	25.44	5.31	26.14	6.87	z = -.231	p = .818
Compassion satisfaction (ProQOL)	Average		Average		Average
	36.09	6.78	36.49	5.51	35.65	8.00	z = -.326	p = .745

Levels of secondary trauma for the whole sample fell within the upper end of the mild range on the STSS (M = 35.29, SD = 13.34). Similarly, group scores on the STS subscale of the ProQOL fell within the low range (M = 20.08, SD = 6.51). Group levels of burnout (M = 25.77, SD = 6.07) and compassion satisfaction were found to be in the average range (M = 36.09, SD = 6.78). Scores for all measures fell within the same ranges when considered by gender (except for males having higher/moderate levels of STS, this difference almost being significant, p = .077). No significant gender differences were found on any of the measures (Mann–Whitney, all ps > .05).

Are levels of secondary trauma, burnout and compassion satisfaction related to length of service in specialist policing?

To address research question 2, a frequency analysis was conducted to determine the average length of service in current and any specialist policing role for the whole sample. Spearman’s correlations were used to examine associations between length of service in specialist policing, secondary trauma, burnout and compassion satisfaction.

The average length of time employed in current specialist sexual and violent offending police role was 33.80 months (2.82 years, SD = 36.18). The average length of time employed in any specialist policing role was 97.91 months (8.16 years, SD = 74.10).

Weak and significant positive correlations (Table 2) were found between number of months in current role and secondary trauma (r_s = .292, p = .017) and burnout (r_s =.346, p =.004). This suggests that, as length of service increases, so do levels of secondary trauma and burnout. However, this relationship was not found to be as strong or significant for number of months in any specialist policing role (secondary trauma, r_s = .076, p = .543 and burnout, r_s = .231, p = .062). Weak negative correlations were found between length of service and compassion satisfaction. However, this relationship was only found to be significant for length of service in any specialist policing role (r_s = -.265, p = .031) and not current role (r_s = -.231, p = .062).

Table 2.

Spearman’s correlations between length of specialist policing service (current role and total), secondary trauma, burnout and compassion satisfaction.

Length of service	Secondary traumatic stress	Burnout	Compassion satisfaction
Current role	.292*	.346**	-.231
Any specialist policing	.076	.231	-.265*

*p < .05, **p < .01 (2 tailed), n = 66 due to 12 unclear responses.

Which attachment style and individual characteristics are most associated with secondary trauma, burnout, compassion satisfaction and mental ill-health?

To address research question 3, Spearman’s correlations were used to examine associations between attachment style, individual characteristics, secondary trauma, burnout, compassion satisfaction and mental ill-health (Table 3).

Table 3.

Spearman’s correlations between attachment style, individual characteristics, secondary trauma, burnout, compassion satisfaction and mental ill-health.

	Secondary traumatic stress	Burnout	Compassion satisfaction	Current mental ill-health
Avoidant attachment	.385**	.508***	-.227	.435***
Anxious attachment	.265*	.331**	-.131	.424***
Coping self-efficacy	-.572***	-.661***	.490***	-.662***
Dispositional mindfulness	-.460***	-.635***	.385***	-.584***
Psychological flexibility	-.460***	-.485***	.373**	-.530***

*p < .05, **p < .01, p < .001*** (2 tailed), N = 78 for all analyses

Regarding attachment style, results showed weak to moderate, significant positive correlations between avoidant attachment style and secondary trauma (r_s =.385, p = .001), burnout (r_s = .508, p < .001) and mental ill-health (r_s = .435, p < .001). Significant weak positive correlations were found between anxious attachment style and secondary trauma (r_s = .265, p = .019), burnout (r_s = .331, p = .003), as well as a moderate correlation with mental ill-health (r_s = .424, p < .001). This suggests that, as levels of attachment insecurity increase, so do levels of secondary trauma, burnout and mental ill-health. This association was found to be strongest for avoidant attachment style, particularly in relation to burnout. Associations between attachment style and compassion satisfaction were not found to be significant.

Regarding individual characteristics, results showed strong and moderate, highly significant negative correlations between coping self-efficacy (r_s = -.661, p < .001), dispositional mindfulness (r_s = -.635, p < .001), psychological flexibility (r_s = -.485 p < .001) and burnout. Moderate, highly significant negative correlations were also found between coping self-efficacy (r_s = -.572, p < .001), dispositional mindfulness (r_s = -.460, p < .001), psychological flexibility (r_s = -.460, p < .001) and secondary trauma. Strong and moderate, highly significant negative correlations were also found between coping self-efficacy (r_s = -.662, p < .001), dispositional mindfulness (r_s = -.584, p < .001), psychological flexibility (r_s = -.530, p < .001) and mental ill-health.

This suggests that, as levels of coping self-efficacy, dispositional mindfulness and psychological flexibility increase, levels of secondary trauma, burnout and mental ill-health decrease. This association was found to be strongest for coping self-efficacy, particularly in relation to mental ill-health and burnout. Similarly, coping self-efficacy was found to be most strongly associated with compassion satisfaction (r_s = .490, p < .001). Dispositional mindfulness (r_s =.385, p < .001) and psychological flexibility (r_s = .373, p = .001) were also found to be weakly associated with compassion satisfaction.

Discussion

The aim of the study was to examine individual characteristics, secondary trauma and burnout in police specialist sexual and violent offending teams. Three research questions were constructed to enable a risk and resilience analysis of the associations between the variables.

Research question 1 examined what levels of secondary trauma, burnout and compassion satisfaction were present. Levels were found to be in the mild, average and high average ranges respectively. No significant gender differences were found. While the findings appear contrary to the well-recognised existence of secondary trauma and burnout in the helping professions (Elliott and Daley; Tehrani, 2010), they fit with the low prevalence reported in recent studies using specialist police samples (Tehrani, 2016; Turgoose et al., 2017). Therefore, the findings add to a mixed wider literature, showing that a high proportion of specialist police staff cope well with demands of their work (Perez et al., 2010; Powell et al., 2014; Wolak and Mitchell, 2009) alongside reports of a variety of trauma- and burnout-related difficulties (Burns et al., 2008; Krause, 2009; Perez et al., 2010; Powell et al., 2015; Wolak and Mitchell, 2009). As the sample had high average levels of compassion satisfaction, it may be the case this provided resilience from secondary trauma and burnout, which would fit with Stamm’s (2002) assertion.

Research question 2 examined associations between length of service in specialist policing (current role and total) and levels of secondary trauma, burnout and compassion satisfaction. Length of service in current role was found to be weakly and significantly associated with increased levels of secondary trauma and burnout (stronger for burnout). A weak relationship with decreased levels of compassion satisfaction was not found to be significant. When examined by total length of service, associations were not found to be significant, other than a weak association with decreased levels of compassion satisfaction. Together this suggests that, as length of service increases, the weak association with increased levels of secondary trauma and burnout does not remain. This does not support a cumulative stress model (Figley, 1995).

However, while it may be the case police staff develop improved ways to cope, it cannot be inferred this is due to the mitigating influence of compassion satisfaction (Stamm, 2002). These findings fit with Turgoose et al. (2017) who found levels of secondary trauma and burnout increased with length of service in current role, but not with overall experience. They suggested this was related to working with rape victims in current role. This study is unable to confirm this suggestion as the total sample used in analysis included staff from a variety of specialist sexual and violent offending teams (to increase statistical power). Further research is needed to examine how and why levels of secondary trauma, burnout and compassion satisfaction change with length of service, including whether this differs by specialist police role. The findings of research question 3 enabled inferences to be made regarding the role of specific risk and resilience factors in this relationship.

Research question 3 examined which attachment style and individual characteristics were most associated with secondary trauma, burnout, compassion satisfaction and mental ill-health. Regarding attachment style, increased levels of attachment insecurity (anxious and avoidant) were associated with increased levels of secondary trauma, burnout and mental ill-health (most strongly for burnout and mental ill-health). This fits with attachment theory and research, which highlights insecure attachment as a risk factor in poor psychosocial functioning (Mikulincer and Florian, 1998). However, the finding that the association was strongest for avoidant attachment style contrasts with the existing PTSD literature, which suggests a stronger negative impact of anxious attachment style (Woodhouse et al., 2015). While it was found that increased attachment insecurity was negatively associated with compassion satisfaction, this relationship was not significant. It may be that the common difficulties associated with attachment insecurity (e.g. self-regulation and difficulties in close relationships) do not have a significant impact on a person’s capacity for compassion in the workplace. Furthermore, this may have been compounded by the ECR-R measure of attachment used, which focuses on romantic relationships.

Strong and moderate correlations showed increased levels of the hypothesised psychological resilience variables (coping self-efficacy, dispositional mindfulness and psychological flexibility) were significantly associated with decreased levels of secondary trauma, burnout and mental ill-health. This relationship was strongest for coping self-efficacy, particularly with decreased burnout and mental ill-health. Positive, highly significant correlations were also found between the resilience variables and compassion satisfaction. The findings of research question three fit with the wider literature on psychological wellbeing (Tugade et al., 2004) and provide a potentially valuable basis to enhance resilience against secondary trauma, burnout and mental ill-health in the helping professions. Further research is needed to estimate the magnitude and significance of hypothesised causal connections between the individual characteristics variables, secondary trauma, burnout and compassion satisfaction.

Methodological limitations must be considered when discussing the findings of the study. The main limitation concerns the analytic strategy employed. As with all correlational studies, causation cannot be inferred from the observed relationships between the variables. The study data was collected using an online self-report questionnaire survey. While the limitations of such methods are well-established (e.g. question misinterpretation and demand characteristics), they provide the opportunity to gain access to (potentially large) under-researched populations, such as specialist police samples. A further limitation of the study is the small sample size (N = 78). While this was a lower number of responses than hoped, it was deemed enough to conduct the planned correlational data analysis. However, it is acknowledged that the study was exploratory in nature (with a small sample size) and therefore findings are limited in terms of generalisability and may be more representative of the specific teams who completed the survey. It is encouraged that future studies examine risk and resilience factors for secondary trauma, burnout and mental ill-health using larger samples of specialist police staff to increase generalisability and enhance the emerging literature, as part of ensuring that findings can usefully be applied to improve police wellbeing.

Several practice implications for the police arise from the study. While levels of secondary trauma and burnout were found to be in the mild ranges, it remains the case that specialist police staff are vulnerable to the development of these difficulties due to the inherently challenging nature of their work (Powell et al., 2015). The prevalence of stress, anxiety and depression amongst police staff is increasingly recognised as a major issue, with psychological reasons being the main cause of long-term sickness absence in the UK (Dowling et al., 2017; Ingram, 2014; Pugh, 2016). Therefore, there is a need for police and crime commissioners to implement policies and practices that attend to the high risk of secondary trauma, burnout and mental ill-health in police forces by ensuring staff are screened, educated and supported in developing resilience (Tehrani, 2016).

The results of the study provide support for the increased use of psychological approaches in recruiting and supporting police staff in the workplace, particularly methods to promote mindfulness and self-efficacy. Mindfulness-based interventions have been used widely in occupational settings (Lomas et al., 2017). In 2015, the mental health charity MIND launched the ‘Blue Light’ mental health programme for emergency workers, which draws upon cognitive-behavioural therapy and mindfulness approaches. Wild (2016) conducted an RCT evaluation of the group-based six session resilience intervention. Police staff rated mindfulness as being the most helpful topic. However, results showed no significant differences in levels of self-efficacy. It was concluded that the intervention may not be cost-effective in its current form and suggested further refinements should focus on targeting the predictors of resilience and mental ill-health.

Regarding refinements, the present study suggests it may be beneficial to use acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) approaches in promoting resilience against work-related stress and mental ill-health. The general aim of ACT is to increase psychological flexibility (Hayes et al., 2013). An evaluation of an ACT training programme designed to promote staff wellbeing and resilience (including mindfulness and values-based action) reported there was convincing evidence for the efficacy of the programme with NHS staff (Jennings et al., 2016). To a lesser extent, the findings also indicate the potential value of attachment-based approaches in the workplace. Recent research has suggested that models of burnout and work engagement would be more effective if they incorporated employees’ perceptions and behaviour associated with attachment style, including how these influence interactions with colleagues and clients (Leiter et al., 2015).

The findings of the study provide a potentially valuable basis from which to conduct future research. Furthermore, the study makes a novel contribution to the existing literature due to the combined examination of work-related stress and mental ill-health variables (particularly the findings indicating that enhancing coping self-efficacy, dispositional mindfulness and psychological flexibility may ameliorate both). Regarding the above suggestions, it would be necessary for evaluation to be conducted regarding the efficacy of interventions and support packages. Studies using longitudinal designs would enable understanding of how levels of secondary trauma, burnout and mental ill-health change over time. This being particularly relevant for length of service in specialist policing.

In conclusion, a resilient police work force is crucial in maintaining operational effectiveness in the current UK climate of police cuts. Knowledge of psychological risk and resilience factors can potentially improve staff wellbeing and promote optimum performance (Hesketh et al., 2015).

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The authors would sincerely like to thank North Wales Police for enabling the research to take place, particularly Detective Inspector Jonathan Salisbury-Jones. Also, Dr Julia Wane (Tŷ Llywelyn Medium Secure Unit) for her substantial support of the study and Dr Chris Saville (North Wales Clinical Psychology Programme) for his comments on earlier versions of the manuscript.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Clarabella Gray

References

Atkinson-Tovar

(2003) The impact of repeated exposure to trauma. Law and Order 51(9): 118–123.

Bandura

(1997) Self-efficacy: The Exercise of Control. Basingstoke: Macmillan Publishers Ltd.

Baer

(2003) Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: A conceptual and empirical review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 10(2): 125–143.

Baer

Smith

Hopkins

Krietemeyer

Toney

(2006) Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment 13(1): 27–45.

Bond

Hayes

Baer

Carpenter

Guenole

Orcutt

… Zettle

(2011) Preliminary psychometric properties of the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II: A revised measure of psychological inflexibility and experiential avoidance. Behavior Therapy 42(4): 676–688.

Bowcott

(2018) Online child sex abuse referred to Met increased by 700% since 2014. The Guardian, 22 January. Available at: www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/jan/22/online-child-sex-abuse-referred-to-met-increased-by-700-since-2014 (accessed 25 April 2019).

Bowlby

(1969) Attachment and Loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. New York: Basic Books.

Bride

(2007) Prevalence of secondary traumatic stress among social workers. Social Work 52(1): 63–70.

Bride

Robinson

Yegidis

Figley

(2004) Development and validation of the Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale. Research on Social Work Practice 14(1): 27–35.

10.

Burns

Morley

Bradshaw

Domene

(2008) The emotional impact on and coping strategies employed by police teams investigating internet child exploitation. Traumatology 14(2): 20–31.

11.

Cassidy

Jones

Shaver

(2013) Contributions of attachment theory and research: A framework for future research, translation, and policy. Development and Psychopathology 25(4pt2): 1415–1434.

12.

Chesney

Neilands

Chambers

Taylor

Folkman

(2006) A validity and reliability study of the Coping Self-Efficacy Scale. British Journal of Health Psychology 11(3): 421–437.

13.

Choi

(2015) Study on validity and reliability of Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) for Measuring Mindfulness Meditation Program Before and After. Journal of Oriental Neuropsychiatry 26(2): 181–190.

14.

Collins

Long

(2003) Working with the psychological effects of trauma: Consequences for mental health-care workers-a literature review. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing 10(4): 417–424.

15.

Cross

Ashley

(2004) Police trauma and addiction: Coping with the dangers of the job. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 73(10): 24–32.

16.

Dowling

Chesworth

Goldberg

(2017) Police officers talk about their battle against PTSD. BBC News, 3 December. Available at: www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-42159974 (accessed 25 April 2019).

17.

Dunning

Silva

(1980) Disaster-induced Trauma in Rescue Workers. National Emergency Training Center.

18.

Durham

McCammon

Allison

Jr (1985) The psychological impact of disaster on rescue personnel. Annals of Emergency Medicine 14(7): 664–668.

19.

Elliott

Daley

(2013) Stress, coping, and psychological well-being among forensic health care professionals. Legal and Criminological Psychology 18(2): 187–204.

20.

Elwood

Mott

Lohr

Galovski

(2011) Secondary trauma symptoms in clinicians: A critical review of the construct, specificity, and implications for trauma-focused treatment. Clinical Psychology Review 31(1): 25–36.

21.

Faul

Erdfelder

Lang

Buchner

(2007) G* Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods 39(2): 175–191.

22.

Figley

(1995) Compassion fatigue as secondary traumatic stress disorder: An overview. In Figley

(ed.) Compassion Fatigue: Coping with Secondary Traumatic Stress Disorder in Those Who Treat the Traumatized. New York: Brunner-Routledge, 1–20.

23.

Figley

(2002) Compassion fatigue: Psychotherapists’ chronic lack of self care. Journal of Clinical Psychology 58(11): 1433–1441.

24.

Figley

Stamm

(1996) Psychometric review of Compassion Fatigue Self Test. In Stamm

(ed.) Measurement of Stress, Trauma, and Adaptation. Baltimore, MD: Sidran Press, 127–130.

25.

Fledderus

Bohlmeijer

Smit

Westerhof

(2010) Mental health promotion as a new goal in public mental health care: A randomized controlled trial of an intervention enhancing psychological flexibility. American Journal of Public Health 100(12): 2372–2372.

26.

Fraley

Waller

Brennan

(2000) An item response theory analysis of self-report measures of adult attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78(2): 350–365.

27.

Goldberg

(1992) General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) [Measurement instrument]. Chiswick: GL Assessment.

28.

Hankins

(2008) The reliability of the twelve-item general health questionnaire (GHQ-12) under realistic assumptions. BMC Public Health 8(1): 355.

29.

Hartsough

Myers

(1985) Disaster work and mental health: Prevention and control of stress among workers. Available at: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED277919.pdf (accessed 25 April 2019).

30.

Hayes

Levin

Plumb-Vilardaga

Villatte

Pistorello

(2013) Acceptance and commitment therapy and contextual behavioral science: Examining the progress of a distinctive model of behavioral and cognitive therapy. Behavior Therapy 44(2): 180–198.

31.

Hesketh

Cooper

Ivy

(2015) Well-being, austerity and policing: Is it worth investing in resilience training? The Police Journal 88(3): 220–230.

32.

Ingram

(2014, Sep 5) Policing and the true scale of mental health issues. Police Oracle. Available at www.policeoracle.com/news/Staff+Associations/2014/Sep/04/Policing,-and-the-true-scale-of-mental-health-issues_85346.html (accessed 25 April 2019).

33.

Jennings

Whipday

Egdell

Pestell

Flaxman

(2016) Meaningful work. Available at: https://contextualconsulting.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Meaningful-Work.pdf (accessed 25 April 2019).

34.

Jisc (2017) Online surveys [Measurement instrument]. Available at www.onlinesurveys.ac.uk (accessed 25 April 2019).

35.

Joinson

(1992) Coping with compassion fatigue. Nursing 22(4): 116–120.

36.

Kabat-Zinn

(1994) Wherever You Go, There You Are: Mindfulness Meditation in Everyday Life. New York: Hyperion.

37.

Karlsson

Christianson

SÅ

(2003) The phenomenology of traumatic experiences in police work. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management 26(3): 419–438.

38.

Kashdan

Rottenberg

(2010) Psychological flexibility as a fundamental aspect of health. Clinical Psychology Review 30(7): 865–878.

39.

Krause

(2009) Identifying and managing stress in child pornography and child exploitation investigators. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology 24(1): 22–29.

40.

Leiter

Day

Price

(2015) Attachment styles at work: Measurement, collegial relationships, and burnout. Burnout Research 2(1): 25–35.

41.

Lomas

Medina

Ivtzan

Rupprecht

Hart

Eiroa-Orosa

(2017) The impact of mindfulness on wellbeing and performance in the workplace: an inclusive systematic review of the empirical literature. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 26(4): 492–513.

42.

MacEachern

Jindal-Snape

Jackson

(2011) Child abuse investigation: Police officers and secondary traumatic stress. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics 17(4): 329–339.

43.

Maslach

(1982) Burnout: The Cost of Caring. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

44.

Maslach

Jackson

(1981) The measurement of experienced burnout. Journal of Organizational Behavior 2(2): 99–113.

45.

Maslach

Jackson

Leiter

(1996) The Maslach Burnout Inventory Manual [Measurement instrument]. Available at: www.researchgate.net/profile/Christina_Maslach/publication/277816643_The_Maslach_Burnout_Inventory_Manual/links/5574dbd708aeb6d8c01946d7.pdf (accessed 25 April 2019).

46.

Maslach

Schaufeli

Leiter

(2001) Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology 52(1): 397–422.

47.

McCann

Pearlman

(1990) Vicarious traumatisation: A framework for understanding the psychological effects of working with victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress 3(1): 131–149.

48.

Mikulincer

Florian

(1998) The relationship between adult attachment styles and emotional and cognitive reactions to stressful events. In Simpson

Rholes

(eds) Attachment Theory and Close Relationships. New York: Guilford Press, 143–165.

49.

Mikulincer

Shaver

Pereg

(2003) Attachment theory and affect regulation: The dynamics, development, and cognitive consequences of attachment-related strategies. Motivation and Emotion 27(2): 77–102.

50.

Moran

(2015) Acceptance and commitment training in the workplace. Available at: www.julieallenconsulting.com/media/1364/moran_actintheworkplace_pickslyde.pdf (accessed 25 April 2019).

51.

Owen

(n.d). Supporting staff: GMP research initiative focusing on understanding absenteeism linked to psychological illness. Available at: http://library.college.police.uk/docs/theses/OWEN-Supporting-staff-GMP-Research-Initiative-Focussing-on-Understanding-Absenteeism-Linked-to-Psychological-Illness.docx (accessed 25 April 2019).

52.

Perez

Jones

Englert

Sachau

(2010) Secondary traumatic stress and burnout among law enforcement investigators exposed to disturbing media images. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology 25(2): 113–124.

53.

Powell

Cassematis

Benson

Smallbone

Wortley

(2014) Police officers’ strategies for coping with the stress of investigating internet child exploitation. Traumatology: An International Journal 20(1): 32–42.

54.

Powell

Cassematis

Benson

Smallbone

Wortley

(2015) Police officers’ perceptions of their reactions to viewing internet child exploitation material. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology 30(2): 103–111.

55.

Pugh

(2016) What can mindfulness teach the police force? The Guardian, 14 June. Available at: www.theguardian.com/society/2016/jun/14/mindfulness-police-rising-stress-anxiety-depression (accessed 25 April 2019).

56.

Roach

Cartwright

Sharratt

(2017) Dealing with the unthinkable: A study of the cognitive and emotional stress of adult and child homicide investigations on police investigators. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology 32(3): 251–262.

57.

Roach

Sharratt

Cartwright

Skou Roer

(2018) Cognitive and emotional stressors of child homicide investigations on UK and Danish police investigators. Homicide Studies 22(3): 296–320.

58.

Schaufeli

Leiter

Maslach

(2009) Burnout: 35 years of research and practice. Career Development International 14(3): 204–220.

59.

Schwarzer

Warner

(2013) Perceived self-efficacy and its relationship to resilience. In Prince-Embury

Saklofske

(eds) Resilience in Children, Adolescents, and Adults. New York: Springer, 139–150.

60.

Sibley

Fischer

Liu

(2005) Reliability and validity of the revised experiences in close relationships (ECR-R) self-report measure of adult romantic attachment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31(11): 1524–1536.

61.

Stamm

(1997) Work-related secondary traumatic stress. PTSD Research Quarterly 8(2): 1–8. Available at: www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/newsletters/research-quarterly/V8N2.pdf (accessed 25 April 2019).

62.

Stamm

(2002) Measuring compassion satisfaction as well as fatigue: Developmental history of the compassion fatigue and satisfaction test. In Figley

(ed) Treating Compassion Fatigue. New York: Brunner Mazel, 107–119.

63.

Stamm

(2005) The ProQOL manual [Measurement instrument]. Available at: www.compassionfatigue.org/pages/ProQOLManualOct05.pdf (accessed 25 April 2019).

64.

Stamm

(2009) Professional quality of life: Compassion satisfaction and fatigue version 5 (ProQOL 5) [Measurement instrument] Retrieved from http://proqol.org/ProQol_Test.html (accessed 25 April 2019).

65.

Stamm

(2010) The ProQOL (Professional Quality of Life Scale: Compassion satisfaction and compassion fatigue). Available at: www.proqol.org (accessed 25 April 2019).

66.

Tehrani

(2010) Managing Trauma in the Workplace: Supporting Workers and Organisations. New York: Routledge.

67.

Tehrani

(2016) Extraversion, neuroticism and secondary trauma in internet child abuse investigators. Occupational Medicine 66(5): 403–407.

68.

Tugade

Fredrickson

Feldman Barrett

(2004) Psychological resilience and positive emotional granularity: Examining the benefits of positive emotions on coping and health. Journal of Personality 72(6): 1161–1190.

69.

Turgoose

Glover

Barker

Maddox

(2017) Empathy, compassion fatigue, and burnout in police officers working with rape victims. Traumatology 23(2): 205–213.

70.

Wild

(2016) An evaluation of Mind’s resilience intervention for emergency workers. Available at: www.mind.org.uk/media/4627959/strand-3.pdf (accessed 25 April 2019).

71.

Wolak

Mitchell

(2009) Work exposure to child pornography in ICAC task forces and affiliates. Available at: https://regmedia.co.uk/2017/01/11/law_enforcement_work_exposure_to_cp.pdf (accessed 25 April 2019).

72.

Woodhouse

Ayers

Field

(2015) The relationship between adult attachment style and post-traumatic stress symptoms: a meta-analysis. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 35: 103–117.