The lasting effect of community police academies: Results of a 6-month follow-up

Abstract

Community police academies (CPA) are used by police agencies to educate the public on practices and expand community involvement. Using pre-test, post-test, and follow-up survey data, the current study examines the lasting effects of attending a CPA on citizen knowledge, perceptions, and concerns. Results indicate that participants were more knowledgeable about police practices, perceived officers as more honest and accountable, and expressed lower concerns about use of force and misconduct immediately following participation. Follow-up results indicated that, while knowledge was retained, the improvements to perceptions of honesty and accountability were reduced and concerns about misconduct had increased 6 months later.

Keywords

Law enforcement public education perceptions

Introduction

Highly publicized incidents of fatal uses of force against people of color in 2020, including George Floyd, Breonna Taylor, and Ahmaud Arbery, have resulted in widespread protests and questions regarding police use of force (McLaughlin, 2020). The proliferation of technology and social media has allowed the documentation and dissemination of these and countless other violent citizen and police encounters for the public to view (Desmond et al., 2016; Nix and Wolfe, 2017). As a result of these recent incidents, a recent Gallup poll showed that confidence in American law enforcement agencies had reached an all-time low (Brenan, 2020). A multitude of factors have been found to affect the public’s perception of the police, such as race, neighborhood context, and community police relations (see: Lai and Zhao, 2010; Weitzer et al., 2008), and as such, law enforcement agencies have long tried to transform their image and educate the community on police operations to strengthen community police relations.

One approach that law enforcement agencies use to educate the public are community police academies (CPAs). Past research has indicated that CPA events, which aim to improve public education on police practices and enhance police-community relationships, can be effective (Bonello and Schafer 2002; Breen and Johnson, 2007; Brewster et al., 2005; Perez et al., 2020a). This research, however, often takes place directly following participation in CPA events. While it is important to assess the immediate effects of CPAs, if agencies wish to make lasting changes to improve public perceptions and decrease citizen concerns over use of force and misconduct, follow-up research is essential. As such, the current study aims to expand upon past research to examine the lasting effects of CPAs in changing perceptions of officer trust and accountability, decreasing concerns of police misconduct and use of force, and educating citizens on police practices 6 months after CPA attendance.

Community policing and procedural justice

Police departments throughout the United States have adopted various strategies to improve the relationship between citizens and law enforcement (for a more thorough review of these initiatives, see: Perez et al., 2020a; 2020b). These strategies involve the community policing principle that highlights the value of building partnerships with the community as a method to combat crime and other social problems (Cohn, 1996; McCandless, 2018, Trojanowicz and Bucqueroux, 1990). Although the degree of citizen involvement with the police in these initiatives may vary, the ultimate objective is to enhance community safety through organizational partnerships and public participation (Cohn, 1996; Skogan and Hartnett, 1999; Trojanowicz and Bucqueroux, 1990). Therefore, law enforcement agencies have attempted to implement programs centered around community policing principles to accommodate the demographics, needs, and concerns of the local community and reduce crime (Buchner et al., 2008; Kemp, 2018).

Procedural justice is a widely used community policing strategy that has demonstrated positive effects on strengthening the relationship between the police and the community. Research indicates that instilling procedural justice pillars of voice, neutrality, respect, and impartiality during police interactions with citizens can improve police legitimacy and accountability (Elliot et al., 2011; Sunshine and Tyler, 2003; Tyler, 2004; 2008; Tyler and Jackson, 2013). In response, procedural justice efforts and training has been adopted in police jurisdictions nationwide to ensure police recruits develop more sophisticated decision-making skills (Murphy and Tyler, 2017; Rosenbaum and Lawrence, 2017).

Community meetings with police officers and community police dialogues are other approaches that have been used to address issues within the local community. A key element these initiatives practice is giving citizens an important voice in the process of building trust between police agencies and their communities. Community police dialogues allow a platform for citizens and officers to share one another’s perspectives and encourage an open discussion on community concerns (Bell et al., 1969; Buchner et al., 2008; Lipsitt and Steinbruner, 1969; Perez et al., 2020b; Wahl and White 2017). Another similar program used to foster relationships between the police and citizens are community police academies (CPAs).

Community police academies (CPAs)

Approximately half of all police departments throughout the U.S. have employed community police academies (CPAs) to teach citizens police procedures and operations (Becton et al., 2005). The Orlando Police Department (Florida) organized the first CPA in the United States in 1985 (Maffe and Burke, 1999). Since then, CPAs have been used as a community policing effort to strengthen community police relations (Lee, 2016). CPAs often involve a citizen curriculum covering various techniques of public engagement and education, but the core elements of the academies focus on encouraging positive interactions between the police and the community (Bonello and Schafer 2002; Breen and Johnson 2007; Brewster et al., 2005; Lee, 2016; Perez et al., 2020a; Pope et al., 2007; Schafer and Bonello, 2001). Common activities in CPAs may include ride-alongs, lectures, and simulated or live action scenarios (Lee, 2016).

Overall, the literature on CPAs indicates improvements to the relationships between local police departments and the community. Immediately following participation, community members are found to have a better understanding of police procedures (Bonello and Schafer 2002; Breen and Johnson 2007; Brewster et al., 2005). These academies encourage community members to build a partnership with police officers and are found to enhance citizen willingness to engage in activities that will improve community safety (Bonello and Schafer 2002; Breen and Johnson 2007; Brewster et al., 2005; Lee, 2016).

A recent evaluation of 14 CPA events with over 300 community participants found that participation in the CPA was associated with a better knowledge of police practices and policies and stronger trust in law enforcement officers (Perez et al., 2020a). Comparing pre-test and post-test data, CPA attendees performed better on knowledge-based quiz items and were more likely to believe officers were honest/trustworthy and held accountable for their actions after participation. Furthermore, participants left the event with lower levels of concern over officer misconduct and officer use of force (Perez et al., 2020a). While the increased knowledge about police practices was predictive of lower concern about excessive force, it was not associated with greater perceptions of trust and accountability in police officers (Perez et al., 2020a). This suggested that perceptions of officer honesty, integrity and accountability may be more emotionally motivated. Thus, the interactive community-building nature of the CPA may be more influential on changing how the public feels about police officers than the educational components (Perez et al., 2020a).

While past research certainly highlights the effects of CPA attendance, none of these past studies of CPAs examine any long-term changes to attitudes or knowledge after the community member leaves the CPA environment. It makes intuitive sense that the citizen will be more knowledgeable about police practices and have improved perceptions of the police immediately following the CPA experience. The key question, though, is: will these events make any meaningful changes to citizen knowledge or perceptions of police weeks or even months after participating in the event? As indicated by Brewster and colleagues (2005), follow-up evaluations are necessary to ‘discover the possible impact of CPAs over the long term’ (p. 33). Thus far, though, no such research has been conducted. As such, the current study aims to expand upon the research conducted by Perez et al. (2020a) to examine the long-term effects of CPAs and their ability to improve perceptions of officer trust and accountability, decrease concerns of police misconduct and use of force, and educate citizens on police practices through follow-up surveys administered 6 months after CPA attendance.

Methods

Beginning in 2017, the health department and police department in a large southwestern U.S. city hosted 14 community police academies (CPAs). These CPA events were hosted in a city with strong diversity of its residents, with approximately 25% white, 45% Hispanic, 12% African American, 14% Asian or Pacific Islanders, and 4% other races/ethnicities (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). These events were comprised of an agenda from about 7:45 am until 5:15 pm (9.5 hours), hosting approximately 20–30 community member attendees. These individuals were recruited by the department through a variety of different groups and community stakeholders, such as local school administrators/board members, neighborhood/community watch members, faith communities, social services organizations, private foundations/charities, business leaders, youth organizations, university students, community activists, and others. Furthermore, the police department utilized their website and social media accounts to inform the public about the events and encourage participation.

All CPA participants were required to be at least 18 years old, have no outstanding warrants, not be involved in any active investigations, or have any recent felony convictions. Individuals were able to apply in person, by phone, or via an online application. The selection process involved a brief background check to determine the applicant met these requirements. Individuals who needed translation assistance during the event were provided real-time translation services. Nearly every community member who applied to the CPAs was selected to participate at an event at some point during the program duration.

The CPA events opened with the participants being invited to complete a pre-test survey to assess knowledge of law enforcement practices and procedures and perceptions of trust, accountability, and opinion toward the police department. After the survey, a high-ranking administrator welcomed the participants and explained the format for the event. The curriculum topics consisted of Laws of Arrest, Patrol Operations, Training, Force Options, Officer-Involved Shooting Investigations, and Internal Affairs Investigations, with subject-matter experts facilitating each lecture. While these discussions covered the policies and practices of the agency, more in-depth discussions about agency culture and the manifestation of these policies in the past were largely beyond the scope of the curriculum.

The participants were also provided the opportunity to participate in various scenarios to apply what they had learned in the class. The scenarios involved a traffic stop, a domestic violence incident, and a virtual-reality simulator scenario to place attendees in the shoes of an officer. The CPA events concluded with closing remarks, debrief, and the presentation of a completion certificate. At the end of the CPA, the attendees also were invited to complete a post-test survey assessing the effect of participating in the event on knowledge and perceptions of law enforcement. In this post-test survey, participants were invited to volunteer for follow-up phone survey to be administered 6 months after CPA participation.

The current study aims to evaluate the lasting effects of these community police academies in improving participant knowledge of police practices and perceptions of police officers. While pre-test and post-test data have already suggested improvements in knowledge of the various topics covered in the CPA as well as perceptions of officer trust, officer accountability, officer use of force, and officer misconduct, this research will evaluate the enduring nature of these changes. The current study aims to answer two main research questions: (1) were the changes to participant knowledge and perceptions long-term, or did they fade over time? and (2) is there an association between participant knowledge and perceptions of police during the follow-up assessment? As a result of this study, researchers and police administrators could gain important insight into the long-term effectiveness of these events in improving community knowledge and perceptions of their officers in strengthening community police relationships.

Data and sample

The sample consists of participants who completed 1 of the 14 community police academy (CPA) events and agreed to participate in the 6-month follow-up survey. Although the original pre-test and post-test survey had 317 participants (response rate of 92.4% attendees), only 67 participants completed the 6-month follow-up survey. This provided a follow-up response rate of 21% of original participants. Reasons for lower participation included an unwillingness to provide a phone number for the voluntary follow-up telephone call, withdrawing consent after originally volunteering, not answering after multiple call attempts, or no longer having an active or correct phone number at the time of the call. When comparing the background characteristics of the full sample and the follow-up sample, no significant differences were found.

Measures

Six months after attending the CPA, participants were asked the exact same questions as the pre-test and post-test questionnaires to assess any changes to their knowledge or views toward police. These questions covered the topics that had been covered throughout the CPA event. These included items related to the curriculum topics: laws of arrest, training, force options, patrol, officer-involved shooting investigations, and internal affairs. An example of a question included ‘In order to make an arrest, police officers must have _______________. (A) Reasonable suspicion that a crime has occurred; (B) A preponderance of evidence that a crime has occurred; (C) Probable cause that a crime has occurred; (D) A gut-feeling that a crime may have occurred.’

Next, the follow-up survey included questions pertaining to perceptions of law enforcement where the respondent could rate their level of agreement from ‘Not at all’ (1) to ‘Very much’ (10). Examples of these questions included: (1) ‘To what extent do you believe officers are honest and trustworthy?’ (2) ‘To what extent do you believe officers are held accountable for their actions while on-duty?’ (3) ‘To what extent do you believe officers use force for no reason?’ and (4) ‘How concerned are you about police misconduct by officers?’

Participants were then asked to assess ‘To what extent did the CPA, in its entirety, increase your overall knowledge of police procedures?’ and ‘To what extent did the CPA encourage you to consider the perspective of the officer when making a traffic stop, an arrest, or the decision to use force?’ At the end of the follow-up survey, the community participants were again asked demographic characteristics to ensure reliability that the participant data matched the original pre- and post-test instruments, such as age, gender, race/ethnicity, and number of officer-initiated contacts in the last 6 months. Finally, they were asked what their most significant take-away was from the CPA event, and allowed to provide qualitative feedback.

Results

Sample descriptives

Table 1 provides the sample descriptives for the community members who participated in the follow-up survey (n = 67). The sample was 42% male and 58% female. The racial/ethnic makeup was varied with 38% White, non-Latino, 36% Latino, 11% African American, 5% Asian or Pacific Islander, and 11% other race. The age range of participants was between 21 and 82 years of age, and the average age was 43. In the last 6 months, some participants reported had 0 police-initiated contacts, while others reported as high as 65 (average of 2.6). Again, these demographics were largely consistent with the full sample of CPA participants (see: Perez et al., 2020a).

Table 1.

Sample demographics.

Variable	Percentage	Min.	Max.	Mean
Gender
Male	42%
Female	58%
Race/Ethnicity
White, Non-Latino	38%
Latino	36%
African American	11%
Asian or Pacific Islander	5%
Other	11%
Age at time of CPA		21	82	43
Police-Initiated Contacts in Last 6 Months		0	65	2.6

n = 67

Follow-up survey results

Table 2 presents the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up means of the CPA participant’s quiz scores (out of 10) and a number of opinion/perception items (10 = very much; 1 = not at all) and their mean-level change from pre-test to post-test and from post-test to follow-up. Paired sample T-tests were used to determine the significance of mean-level changes from the pre-test to the post-test as well as changes from the post-test to the follow-up. For this subsample of follow-up participants, the average pre-test quiz score (out of 10) was a 7.03 (SD = 1.43). This score was significantly increased following participation in the CPA event to 8.31 with a mean change of over one whole point (SD = 1.01). At the 6-month follow-up survey, the average quiz score was an 8.34 (SD = 1.18), which represented a relatively small non-significant increase from the post-test.

Table 2.

Knowledge of police practices and perceptions of police.

Variable	Pre-Test Mean (T1)	Post-Test Mean (T2)	Mean Change (T1 to T2)	Follow-Up Mean (T3)	Mean Change (T2 to T3)
Knowledge of police practices (quiz score)	7.03	8.31	+1.28***	8.34	+0.03
Officers are honest/trustworthy	8.26	9.26	+1.00***	8.79	−0.47**
Officers are held accountable for their actions	8.05	9.16	+1.11***	8.50	−0.66***
Concern about excessive force by officers	4.18	3.12	−1.06***	3.50	+0.38
Officers use force for no reason	2.72	1.90	−0.82***	2.23	+0.33
Concern about police misconduct	3.44	2.56	−0.87***	3.29	+0.73*
To what extent did the CPA increase your knowledge?	—	9.34		9.06	−0.28
To what extent did the CPA change your perception of police practices?	—	8.52		7.98	−0.53

n = 67; Mean changes assessed using paired-samples t-test; *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

During the post-test survey, significant mean-level increases were originally found for the following items: ‘Officers are honest/trustworthy’ (from 8.3; SD = 1.5 increased to 9.3; SD = 0.9) and ‘Officers are held accountable for their actions’ (8.1; SD = 1.7 increased to 9.2; SD = 1.1). On the other hand, large significant negative mean-level changes were found for: ‘Concern about excessive force by officers’ (4.2; SD = 2.7 decreased to 3.1; SD = 2.5), ‘Officers use force for no reason’ (2.7; SD = 1.8 decreased to 1.9; SD = 1.6), and ‘Concern about police misconduct’ (3.4; SD = 2.3 decreased to 2.6; SD = 1.7).

When comparing the 6-month follow-up to the post-test results, a significant mean-level decrease was found for: ‘Officers are honest/trustworthy’ (from 9.3; SD = 0.9 down to 8.8; SD = 1.3) and ‘Officers are held accountable for their actions’ (9.2; SD = 1.1 down to 8.5; SD = 1.6). On the other hand, a significant mean-level increase was found for ‘Concern about police misconduct’ (2.6; SD = 1.7 up to 3.3; SD = 2.5). Other non-significant mean-level increases were found for: ‘Concern about excessive force by officers’ (3.1; SD = 2.5 up to 3.5; SD = 2.6), and ‘Officers use force for no reason’ (1.9; SD = 1.6 up to 2.2; SD = 1.6). Essentially, each change consisted of an opposite effect from what was found between the pre-test and the post-test. That being said, none of the follow-up scores returned to their original levels from prior to CPA participation.

Bivariate correlation results

Table 3 presents the bivariate correlation results for the CPA participants’ follow-up quiz scores and follow-up perceptions of police. Past research has suggested that participant pre-test and post-test quiz scores were not significantly correlated with perceptions of honesty or accountability at that time (Perez et al., 2020a). The current study of follow-up data supports this finding, as the follow-up quiz score was not significantly associated with perceptions of officer honesty or accountability. The current results also found, though, that the quiz score was also not significantly associated with participant level of concern over excessive force or misconduct. As expected, follow-up perceptions of police were highly interrelated. As shown in Table 3, perceptions of honesty/trustworthiness and perceptions of accountability were highly correlated (r = 0.80, p < 0.01), and both measures were associated with lower concern for excessive force and misconduct. Furthermore, participant concern over excessive force was also correlated with concern over misconduct (r = 0.61, p < 0.01).

Table 3.

Follow-up participants’ bivariate correlation results.

	(1) Quiz Score	(2) Perception of Honesty	(3) Perception of Accountability	(4) Concern over Excessive Force
(1) Quiz Score
(2) Perception of Honesty	−0.02
(3) Perception of Accountability	0.11	0.8**
(4) Concern over Excessive Force	−0.18	−0.36**	−0.54**
(5) Concern over Misconduct	−0.15	−0.30*	−0.43**	0.61**

*p<0.05; **p<0.01.

Qualitative responses

To provide context for these quantitative results, a brief examination of the limited qualitative feedback from respondents may be valuable in determining their effectiveness (n = 67). At the end of the follow-up survey, respondents were asked, ‘What was your most significant take-away from the community police academy?’ Despite some of the changes to the quantitative responses at the 6-month follow-up, the responses were universally positive in speaking about the CPA event. A few key trends emerged from these qualitative responses. First, a vast majority of respondents cited the ‘hands-on activities’ and scenarios as the most effective and consequential part of the CPA, indicating they showed, ‘an officer’s perspective’, ‘how quickly dangerous situations can occur’ and ‘how difficult it is to make serious decisions with great consequences in a split second’. One participant indicated that, in the simulations, ‘everything happened so fast…things can happen in a second’, while another remarked, ‘your reactions in the moment aren’t always what you think they might be’.

Next, only a few respondents highlighted the educational components of the CPA, indicating they enjoyed learning ‘what the officers do and what their job entails’, ‘why certain procedures are taken’, and ‘a general idea of how things work’ within the agency. Finally, a few respondents specifically mentioned the CPA atmosphere that allowed them to interact with the police, appreciating the ‘low stakes and relaxed environment’; in fact, one respondent indicated that, after attending the CPA, ‘I feel like when I am stopped…I feel like I am more familiar with the department and the law’. These qualitative comments highlight that while the educational component was valuable, the more influential element was the more ‘emotional’ feeling produced from taking the perspective of the officer in the scenarios. This may provide further context for why perceptions may have changed over time, even though the participant’s knowledge on police practices maintained.

Discussion

The current study evaluated the lasting effect of participation in a 1-day, 8.5-hour community police academy event 6 months after participation. On the day of the CPA, participants completed a pre-test and a post-test survey aimed to assess their knowledge and perception of police. Immediately following participation in the CPA events, past results indicated that community members were more knowledgeable about police practices and more likely to perceive officers as honest and trustworthy and accountable for their actions (Perez et al., 2020a). Participation in the CPA also reduced citizen concerns regarding excessive force and police misconduct immediately after the event. After the post-test survey, participants were invited to participate in a 6-month follow-up survey to reassess the effects of the CPA on their knowledge and opinions toward the police.

Six months following the event, many of the effects were reduced from the post-test survey. Perceptions of officer honesty and accountability were significantly lower 6 months after the CPA than at the CPA’s conclusion. Additionally, participants expressed significantly higher concerns about officer misconduct during the 6-month follow-up survey. While the benefits of attending the CPA did not completely diminish to the pre-test level, the effects had weakened over time. The only item that had not decreased after 6 months was knowledge of police practices. This suggests that the knowledge gained from the CPA event was retained by the participant even 6 months later. Finally, both of the items assessing the respondent’s perception of the CPA in increasing knowledge and changing the perception of the police displayed mean-level decreases.

Furthermore, the results support past research that the benefits of participant knowledge on police practices produced by attending a CPA are not necessarily associated with changes to perceptions of officers. The current study also found that the participant’s knowledge 6 months after the CPA was no longer associated with their level of concern over excessive force and misconduct. This further calls into question the utility of CPAs in making long-term changes in public perceptions and concerns through the education of citizens on police practices. Instead, the qualitative data suggest that the emotional response of taking the perspective of a police officer in the CPA scenarios may have produced a more lasting effect. This perspective-taking could have perhaps produced the greater feelings of trust and sympathy for the issues of use of force and misconduct. These more visceral feelings could have been heightened immediately after the CPA and possibly waned over time, even though an academic understanding of police practices remained. This is just a possible explanation, though, as a full contextualization of these competing factors falls beyond the scope of the current study.

Limitations and implications

One major limitation of this study that is common with all CPA research was that many of the participants attended the event with positive views toward the police. Most attendees indicated they trust and respect the police on their pre-test surveys, suggesting a ‘preaching to the choir’ effect. This is often expected in these sorts of initiatives because the community members who have negative views toward police are less likely to attend these events in the first place. As such, future research should attempt to host these events using a more specific recruitment process to involve members of the community or community groups with less positive views toward the police. Perhaps events could use attendance stipends or other incentives to attract citizens with more suspicion toward law enforcement. This would allow future research to establish whether the findings of the current project are as robust in more targeted or less favorable groups.

Furthermore, the current sample is quite small, and as a result, the results are limited. Moreover, we cannot be sure that time is the sole reason that perceptions of honesty and accountability decreased, while concern over misconduct increased. It is possible that other factors, such as personal experiences, vicarious experiences, or local or national news stories may have also impacted these participants during the 6 months between the CPA and the follow-up survey. While these factors are of major concern, the value of this research still remains vital. Agencies around the U.S. are utilizing CPA events to educate the public and engage their local community. Most of agencies’ endorsement of these initiatives are based on tradition and supported by often dated research that is collected immediately after the CPA’s conclusion. Considering the difficulty in getting respondents to participate in follow-up surveys, the current study is a pivotal first step in assessing the long-term effects of CPA attendance. Future research should consider more frequent and longer term follow-ups to see if any further changes take place after attending a CPA.

Still, in light of these findings, CPAs appear to be a valuable tool that law enforcement agencies can use to educate the public about the practices of law enforcement. The results did suggest that citizen knowledge about police practices had not decreased 6 months following participation. This could be beneficial for police agencies to produce a more aware and well-informed community with regard to police procedures. However, the current findings suggest that a one-day event may not be enough to completely change the dynamics of current community police relationships. While participants were much more trusting of the police directly after the CPA, the effects faded over time. Although each indicator had not yet returned to their original pre-test levels, a large portion of the effects were diminished. If that trend continues over a longer period of time, the participant’s perceptions of police may return entirely back to pre-test levels at some point.

Perhaps, instead of one CPA event, agencies should consider implementing more frequent event opportunities or follow-up events after the original CPA that maintain consistent contact between a citizen and their local police department to change long-term perceptions of the police. The CPA curriculum evaluated in the current study was unable to cover all possible topics in a one-day session, omitting topics related to agency culture, communication tactics, police legitimacy, community policing strategies, among countless others. These, and other relevant local issues, are undoubtedly important subjects to cover with community residents to increase their understanding and improve trust and perceptions of accountability.

Additionally, agencies could also think of CPA events as an opportunity to gather feedback from residents to better understand what members of the public think about the manner in which the community is being policed. In effect, CPA events could also help educate the officers and agency administrators about the existence of barriers to improving public perceptions in the community. This could help the agency improve their tactics or strategies in the field to change public perceptions. Ultimately, larger scale CPA initiatives, perhaps consisting of multiple meetings, may better facilitate an environment conducive to more in-depth conversations and should be taken into consideration by practitioners in the design of their prospective CPA events.

Overall, the current research suggests that there is no quick or easy fix to improving public trust in law enforcement. Public trust in police is a plant that needs constant water to grow. Even still, if done correctly and followed up on, CPAs or similar community events aimed to educate and engage the local public could be a cost-effective program within a community policing initiative to increase local knowledge about the police and encourage positive and open communication between officers and the citizens they serve. In light of recent civil unrest, protests, and scrutiny on police practices, a stronger mutual understanding between the police and the public could be an important bridge to progress.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Nicholas M Perez

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