Well-being of police personnel: Role of perceived social support and perceived control of internal states

Abstract

The cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the relationship between the domains of perceived social support (PSS), perceived control of internal states (PCOIS) and well-being (WB) among police personnel. One hundred twenty two police officers (106 males and 16 females) from the state of Odisha, India were selected using purposive sampling method and were required to fill up the perceived social support, perceived control of internal states and well-being questionnaires. The relationships among these variables were examined using Pearson product moment correlation. The impact of social support and perceived control of internal states on well-being was analysed by multiple hierarchical regression analysis. Significant positive relationships among all these variables were noted. The relationship between the social support from friends’ domain and well-being was not significant. In addition, well-being was predicted by both perceived social support and perceived control of internal states. The findings of this study can help in developing interventions which can enhance the well-being of police personnel by targeting their perceived social support and perceived control of internal states.

Keywords

Perceived social support personal well-being perceived control police personnel

Introduction

In India, the ratio between the police personnel and the population, according to Bureau of Police Research and Development (2015) is at 1:547, which indicates 547 people are to be looked after by one police personnel. Specifically, the Indian state in which this study was conducted, the ratio of general public per Police personnel is 836. Undoubtedly, this puts a lot of stress on the police personnel due to the nature of work they deal with on a daily basis (Anshel, 2000). Police work is usually considered demanding and it involves exposure to undesirable events which leads to negative health outcome. The inability to cope effectively with stressful events leads to burnout and psychosomatic illnesses. In view of the important role they play in society, it is important to enhance their psychological health in the workplace. Therefore, it is imperative to understand their well-being and the psychosocial factors influencing the same. Previous studies have focused mainly on the psychological aspects associated with well-being (Hart et al., 1995; Yildiz, 2008; Karunanidhi and Chitra, 2013; Padhy et al., 2015). One of the important variables in sustaining, and protecting one’s health and in nourishing one’s well-being is the variable of social support (Harrington, 2012). Studies have consistently shown that the nature and quality of social relationships predicts subjective well-being (SWB) (Diener and Seligman, 2002). Research has shown that various determinants, namely, social support, self-efficacy and job satisfaction were found to have a positive impact on well-being. However, previous studies have provided few indications on both social and psychological aspects that influence the well-being of the police personnel.

Well-being (WB) is the ultimate goal of individuals, organizations and the society. Previous literature has found that WB is a multi-pronged construct (Diener, 2009; Stiglitz et al., 2009) and strives to strike a balance between the individual’s resources and their challenges (Dodge et al., 2012). Individuals experience a sense of stability and well-being when they utilise their physical, psychological and social resources to meet their challenges. Literature has shown that WB is influenced by various psychosocial factors. Two such protective factors are perceived social support and perceived control over internal states. The construct of social support refers to the social interactions by which the individual both receives and perceives the resources from significant others who are considered as caring (Kaniasty, 2008). Studies found a strong link between perceived support and health outcomes (Uchino, 2009). The concept of perceived support is different from that of enacted support which is the perception that support would be available if needed and that one is a part of supportive network. This may be the case perhaps because enacted support could be associated with negative consequences as well, such as distress about breaking the norms of reciprocity, feelings of obligation and needless feelings of dependence (DiMatteo, 2004; Thoits, 1995). Perceived control is ‘the belief that one can determine one’s own internal states and behaviour, influence one’s environment and/or bring about desired outcomes’ (Wallston et al., 1987). Perceived control of internal states (Pallant, 2000) is a person’s ‘primary control’ over his/her internal states, and a perceived ability to be able to reduce the impact of adversities and its effect on their emotions, thoughts, as well as well-being. It is a person’s self-appraisal of the ability to exert control or the belief that one can influence victory over outcomes and avoid unwanted ones (Thompson, 2002). It is a blend of internal locus of control (attributional belief that outcomes depend on personal actions) and self-efficacy (confidence in self to execute an action to achieve desired outcome). While support enhances confidence in one’s self-worth, control over internal states enhances confidence in one’s ability.

According to the work done by Diener and Suh (1997), (SWB) encompasses three interrelated domains – that is, satisfaction with life, positive affect and negative affect. Well-being also comprises of aspects such as autonomy, purpose in life, environmental mastery, healthy relationships with others, fulfilling one’s potential and self-acceptance (Ryff, 1989). Hence, social support and positive relationships with others works has a buffering effect against stressors and promotes health and wellness (Dollete et al., 2004). On the other hand, in various situations, exercising control over an event or on its long-term outcome is not feasible. And in certain instances, control over the situation itself seems more important than the perceived control over emotional consequences of the situation in terms of overall adjustment (Pallant, 2000).

People with high well-being are often found to be more successful in different realms of life, such as maintaining healthy social relationships, longevity and engaging in productive work (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). Happiness has positive association with quantity and importantly quality of friendships (Diener and Seligman, 2002). Good social relationship is considered one of the most important foundations of happiness (Reis and Gable, 2003). Kaur et al. (2013) demonstrated that the most commonly used coping method reported by police personnel (75.55%) was social support. The study by Rao and Singh (2017) showed that lack of organizational support was negatively correlated with general well-being of male police personnel. Findings of the research by Michinov (2005) on police officers showed that higher perceived control was associated with fewer health complaints, greater feelings of satisfaction and personal accomplishment. Good health, feelings of satisfaction and personal achievement are part of an individual’s overall well-being. Individuals with high perceived control believe that there is an active association between their internal state and the outcome of their actions. It helps them look for alternatives for reachable goals and disengaging from impractical goals (Thompson, 2002). High level of perceived control of internal states lowers physical and psychological strain (Pallant, 2000) thus equipping individuals to effectively buffer against stress. The capability of an individual to exercise control of one’s thoughts, emotions and reactions empowers the person to deal with the situation more rationally and systematically.

However, although empirical and conceptual attention has largely focused on social support, it is not the only function provided by social networks, nor the only route by which social relationships can affect health and well-being. In addition to support exchanges, there are number of mediator and moderator variables which influence the well-being. Hence, rather than focussing on social support and its relationships to well-being in isolation, more focus is needed on variety of ways in which social support influences health and well-being. More importantly focussing on understanding and enhancing the well-being of police personnel is a vital area of research, since it is often threatened by the very nature of their job. Their occupation involves physical and mental strain and is task defined. They face emergency situations like accidents, disasters, crime and social issues on a day to day basis making their job ever changing and unpredictable. This requires a certain sense of perceived control to be able to face such adverse situations on a daily basis, and be able to regulate their thoughts, emotions and well-being. Only then the personnel will be able to harbour a sense of confidence to deal with unpredictable situations and execute their duties effectively. A sense of control over oneself and confidence about their ability can help police personnel buffer against the stress and strain of their occupation and deal with it in a rational and optimistic manner. Therefore, due to the strenuous nature of their job, it becomes necessary to enquire about the possible psychosocial factors that might impact their well-being in a positive direction.

This background provides the impetus for the current study. Based on the findings of this study, appropriate intervention strategies targeting perceived social support and perceived control over internal states to enhance well-being of police personnel can be developed. Hence, the objective of the study is to examine whether perceived social support and perceived control over internal states impact well-being of police personnel by analysing the correlation between these variables.

Hypotheses

1. It was hypothesized that there would be a relationship between perceived social support, perceived control of internal states and well-being of police personnel.

2. It was hypothesized that age, perceived social support and perceived control of internal states would predict well-being of police personnel.

Method

Study population

The cross-sectional study was conducted in Odisha, the South Eastern region of India. Initially through purposive sampling method a total of 156 individuals from three different district headquarters of Odisha were selected. The quantitative approach (descriptive research) was adopted in the study. Cross-sectional designs are used by researchers at one point in time to describe a population of interest. Purposive sampling is intentional selection of respondents based on their ability to elucidate a particular theme, concept, or phenomenon. Due to exclusion of 34 invalid datasheets, the final pool of the participants was 122 (13.1% women and 86.9% men) with a mean age of 44.66 (SD = 7.81). The participants were classified as clerical staff (n= 35) and gazetted/non-gazetted officers of different ranks (n = 87). The sample in the study is reflective of male police personnel given that 86.9% of the sample is male. This is due to the lesser percentage of female personnel in the police force. As per the numbers, police personnel of Odisha constitutes of 90.35 per cent of male and only 9.65 per cent female (Bureau of Police Research and Development, 2015). Only 12 per cent of the Indian police were women as of 2020 (Radhakrishnan et al., 2021) and the representation of women in Odisha police was 9.48 per cent and 9.65 per cent in 2017 and 2018 (Mohapatra, 2020).

Measures

1. Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) (Zimet et al., 1988). The MSPSS is a short self-report questionnaire of perceived social support in which 12 items are rated on a 7-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from ‘very strongly disagree’ (1point) to ‘very strongly agree’ (7point). It measures perceptions of social support from three different sources namely significant other, family and friends. The three sub-scales have four items each. Total score is sum across all 12 items, divided by 12. The Cronbach’s coefficient alpha values for the significant other, family, friends subscales and the scale as a whole are 0.91, 0.87, 0.85 and 0.88, respectively (Zimet, et al., 1988). The internal consistency Cronbach’s alpha value observed for this scale and subscales family, friends and significant other based on the data gathered for the present study was found to be 0.85, 0.81, 0.77 and 0.76.

2. Perceived Control of Internal States scale (PCOISS; Pallant, 2000). The PCOISS measures an individual’s perception of their ability to control their internal states and moderate the impact of aversive events on their thoughts, emotions and physical well-being. It consists of 18-items, where the participants rate their agreement or disagreement with each of the statements by using a 5-point Likert scale. The responses range from ‘strongly disagree’ (1 point) to ‘strongly agree’ (5 points). The total score is calculated by summing up the circled values for all the 18 statements. The scores may range from 18 to 90, with the higher scores indicative of higher levels of perceived control of internal states. The PCOISS has good internal consistency of 0.90 (Pallant, 2000). The internal consistency Cronbach’s alpha value for this scale based on the data collected for this study was found to be 0.65.

3. Personal Well-being Index (PWBI) (International Well-being Group, 2013): PWBI comprises seven questions each relating to a domain of quality of life namely: health, safety, standard of living, relationships, achieving in life, future security and community-connectedness. Each item is rated on an 11-point scale. The responses range from ‘no satisfaction at all’ (0 point) to ‘completely satisfied’ (10 Points). Each of the seven domains can be analysed as a separate variable, or scores of the seven domains can be summed up, to obtain an average score which represents ‘Subjective well-being’ (International well-being group manual, 2013). The Cronbach alpha value lies between 0.70 and 0.85 in Australia and overseas. The observed internal consistency Cronbach’s alpha value for the scale based on the sample gathered for the present study was found to be 0.81.

Procedure

Permission to conduct the study was obtained from the concerned authorities in various police departments. All the participants agreed to participate in the study voluntarily. The participants were briefed about the purpose of the study by the investigator and were ensured anonymity for the responses given. After obtaining signature in the informed consent form, the investigator administered the scales individually on the participants. All these data gathered from the participants were analysed using appropriate statistics.

Results

The quantitative data obtained were analysed using descriptive statistics, Pearson’s ‘r’ and hierarchical multiple regression using SPSS 21 computer software.

Relationship among the measures

The values of Pearson’s r along with descriptive statistics (M, SD, Range) are presented in Table 1. It was found from Table 1 that all predictors except social support from Friends had significant positive correlations with the criterion (well-being).

Table 1.

Correlation between Age, perceived social support and its dimensions, perceived control of internal states and well-being.

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1.Age	—	−0.05	0.02	0.10	0.22*	0.04	0.18*
2.PSS(Family)		—	0.40**	0.60**	0.82**	0.24**	0.22*
3.PSS(Friends)			—	0.37**	0.75**	0.31**	0.18
4.PSS(Significant others)				—	0.83**	0.35**	0.34**
5.PSS (Total)					—	0.38**	0.31**
6.PCOISS						—	0.40**
7.Well-being							—
M	44.66	23.68	20.24	21.28	65.20	63.18	51.9
SD.	8.46	4.62	5.14	5.40	12.11	7.16	11.51
Range	24–58	4–28	4–28	4–28	15–84	42–88	21–70

Note: PSS = Perceived social support; PCOISS = Perceived control of internal states; *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01.

Inspection of the above table indicates that well-being was positively associated with age (r = 0.18, p < 0.05), perceived social support (r = 0.31, p < 0.01), two of its sub-scales namely family (r = 0.22, p < 0.05), and significant others (r = 0.34, p < 0.01), and perceived control of internal states (r = 0.40, p < 0.01). The strength of the association is small to medium.

Predictors of well-being

Based on the findings of the above analysis, hierarchical regression analysis was performed. As the linearity assumption was tested, other essential assumptions such as normality, homoscedasticity and the absence of multi collinearity were also verified. The results of the model are presented in Table 2. Hierarchical multiple regression was performed to investigate the effect of age, social support and perceived control of internal states in predicting well-being. In hierarchical multiple regression, predictors were entered in blocks according to the theoretical rationale. The multiple regression analysis was carried out in order to investigate the best pattern of variables for predicting well-being.

Table 2.

Summary table of hierarchical regression analysis for age, perceived social support, perceived control of internal states predicting well-being (N = 122).

Model	R	R ²	Adjusted R²	ΔR²	B	SE.	β	T
Model 1 (C = 40.87, F = 4.08*)	0.18	0.03	0.03	0.03
Age					0.25	0.12	0.18	2.02
Model 2 (C = 22.74, F = 8.47**)	0.35	0.12	0.11	0.09
Age					0.23	0.12	0.17	1.99
PSS Total					0.29	0.08	0.30	3.53**
Model 3 (C = −0.98, F = 10.43**)	0.46	0.21	0.19	0.09
Age					0.21	0.11	0.15	1.88
PSS Total					0.18	0.08	0.18	2.08*
PCOISS					0.51	0.14	0.32	3.57**

Note: C = Constant, B = Unstandardized beta coefficient, SE = Standard error, β = Standardized beta coefficient, ΔR² = R² change. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

As seen in Table 2, the significantly correlated predictors were entered hierarchically in three blocks – Block 1 (age), Block 2 (social support) and Block 3 (perceived control of internal states) – in respect of well-being. Model 1, consisting of demographic variable (age), was found to be significant, F (1, 120) = 4.08; p < 0.05, which explained only 3% of variance (Adjusted R² = 0.03) of well-being. In addition to age, when the variable social support was entered, Model 2 was found to be significant, F (2, 119) = 8.47, p < 0.01, and the model explained 9% more significant proportion of variance (ΔR² = 0.09, p < 0.01) amounting to total 12% significant proportion of variance of well-being (Adjusted R² = 0.11). The results revealed that in Model 2, social support was found to be a significant predictor (β = 0.30, p <0.01) for well-being. In addition to age and social support, when variable perceived control of internal states was entered, Model 3 was found to be significant, F (3, 118) = 10.43, p < 0.01, and the model explained 9% more significant proportion of variance (ΔR² = 0.09, p < 0.01) amounting to total 21% significant proportion of variance of well-being (Adjusted R² = 0.19). The results revealed that in the Model 3 (the final adjusted model), perceived control of internal states was found to be a significant predictor (β = 0.32, p < 0.01) for well-being followed by social support (β = 0.18, p < 0.05). The addition of perceived social support (Model 2) and perceived control of internal states (model 3) explained an equal amount of proportion of variance in well-being that is 9%.

Discussion and conclusion

The present study seeks to contribute to the literature by exploring some of the psychosocial factors that predict well-being among police personnel in India. The predictor variables in the study were perceived social support and perceived control over internal states; and the criterion variable was well-being. It was hypothesized that there would be a relationship between perceived social support, perceived control of internal states and well-being of police personnel and also that the predictor variables along with the demographic variable of age would predict well-being of police personnel. Based on the results of statistical analysis, both the hypotheses were accepted.

The findings showed that there was a significant positive relationship between age, perceived social support (two of its domains-family and significant others), perceived control of internal states and well-being of the police personnel. It was also found that the predictor variables significantly predicted the well-being of police personnel with perceived control of internal states having more impact on well-being followed by the role of social support.

The positive relationship between age of the personnel and well-being can be explained from a lifespan perspective. Effective stress management and emotion regulation tend to get fine-tuned with increasing age. Earlier study by the authors suggested that progress in age, is associated with gain in sense of efficacy, competence and mastery related to their work which in turn influence their well-being (Padhy et al., 2015). Emotional competencies and appraisal processes interact with work characteristics and stressful work events. Together they predict occupational well-being and satisfaction (Scheibe and Zacher, 2013). However, the strength of the relationship found in the current study was small. Various studies have confirmed the significant relationship between age and SWB. It is argued that different measures of SWB result in different types of relationships (Xing and Huang, 2014). The existing studies show either a U-shaped, inverted U-shaped or a linear relationship between SWB and ageing (Ulloa et al., 2013). Further research can be undertaken to assess the well-being of police personnel across different age groups.

It is to be noted that three sources of social support were considered in the study: family, friends and significant others. Findings revealed that participants considered family and significant others as source of support and help, but not friends. This may be due to the hectic schedule of the police personnel due to which they may not get adequate time to spend with friends and share their concerns and find the support that they need. In addition to that, police personnel may not find it comfortable to share the stress and strain of the occupation with friends, as they may not be able to completely relate to them unless it is a very close, long and intimate relationship. However, family members and significant others of police personnel, live with them and share an intimate bond with them for a lifetime. Family members can watch and observe on a daily basis, the physical and mental strain of the job that takes a toll on the police personnel. On the other hand, the personnel can share their worries and concerns with their significant others or family – about the work pressures, any conflicts with colleagues, the traumatic incidents and crime they witness. Therefore, intimate family relationships create a safe place for the police personnel to unburden themselves emotionally. This provides the two main aspects of social support, that is, sense of belongingness and fulfils self-esteem needs, which boosts the morale of the police personnel. Also, family environment provides a sense of normality, daily routines, happy events like birthdays, family gatherings, and many happy moments that generate positive emotions in the personnel and buffers them against the strain of the occupation. All these factors are likely to enhance their well-being as well. The study’s findings are in sync with the past research. Research done by Kaur and Gupta (2016) investigated job-related stress and family support among police personnel from Punjab, India. The study reported that 94.5 percent (frequency 617) reported getting emotional help and support from family whenever it is required. The support received from family members may impact their SWB and minimize pain and maximize pleasure. This provides the individual with a sense of satisfaction in aspects of health, work and other relationships cognitively and emotionally contributes to their happiness.

A study showed that social support from family and friends was related to lower stress levels (Vigfúsdóttir, 2017). According to Loriol (2016), police officers can be susceptible to poor mental health if they lack support systems (i.e. family, peers, friends, colleagues’ and supervisors’ trust), or if they lack qualities that enable them to cope. Similarly, another study conducted on police officers indicated that being with family and friends increased momentary positive affect and decreased negative affect, at both the within- and between-person levels (Ryu et al., 2020). However, in the present study, no significant association was observed between social support from friends and well-being. The reasons for this were not explored in the present study from a qualitative perspective but the possible reasons are outlined in the above paragraph. These can be explored in future.

As already mentioned, the nature of occupation of the police personnel is marked with uncertain, unpredictable, dangerous and sometimes fatal incidents. Witnessing adversity and trauma is a part of their daily duties. In addition, they need to perform their duties in different, novel locations and still be able to navigate without making a mistake and react or respond with efficiency. They are required to remain alert and ready all the time. This kind of constant changing environment and exposure to trauma puts a considerable amount of physical, mental and emotional strain on the police personnel. In such a scenario, having perceived control over internal states is essential for one’s well-being (Thoits, 1995; Turner and Noh, 1988; Turner and Lloyd, 1999); as it helps them to exercise control over and regulate their emotions, thoughts and behaviours and not get overwhelmed by the intense situations they are surrounded with. Perceived control also plays a role in the way police personnel appraise adverse events and reduces the intensity of the impact of witnessing traumatic events. They also learn to cope with the mental and emotional impact of traumatic incidents of crime or accidents they witness on a daily basis. A sense of control over one’s thoughts and emotions also helps them to feel confident, in-charge of the situation and increases their self-efficacy of dealing with novel situations and emergencies. On the whole, perceived control over internal states helps police personnel regulate their intense emotions and increases their confidence of performing their job. These factors reduce the psychological strain and increase their well-being, as they foster a sense of stability, autonomy, competence and mastery over their environment (Dijkstra et al., 2011). Nurturing these factors will enable an individual possess enough psychological resources that in turn give the person confidence of facing challenges and thereby enhancing their well-being.

In conclusion, based on the findings of the study it can be ascertained that social support and perceived control over internal states are two of the psychosocial factors that play a role in the well-being of the police personnel. Social support from family members and significant others provides a safe haven for police personnel to share their concerns and find the required emotional support. It keeps them grounded in normal and regular life and helps them find joy. These positive emotions buffer them against stress and thereby aide their well-being. On the other hand, perceived control over internal states helps an individual regulate their emotions and thoughts and gives them confidence and a sense of competence to face challenges, thereby influencing their well-being.

Therefore, it can be said that, police personnel require both internal control-psychological resources and external support from family and significant others to be able to maintain their well-being.

Implications, limitations and future directions

The findings of this study can help in developing interventions which can enhance the well-being of police personnel by targeting their perceived social support and perceived control of internal states. The present study will also add a pragmatic value to the policy makers in designing effective strategies for the enhancement of individual well-being and occupational health in different emergency service personnel. However, we admit some of the limitations of our study that could point to the direction of future research. The impact of tenure, education and department has not been taken into consideration. Another major limitation of this study, affecting the results was the small sample size as it is a challenge to obtain permissions from higher authorities to gather data from police personnel and in being able to recruit personnel to participate in the research due to their demanding schedule. The sample is mostly male and efforts to include an equal number of female police personnel were not taken. Many other factors which can determine the outcome of well-being among these participants need to be explored. Finally, we encourage the future investigators to do a large scale research and recruit more personnel for the studies. Research work with the support of government funding and mandates can encourage more participation of the personnel and lead to more change-oriented findings directed at enhancing the well-being of the police personnel.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual adult participants included in the study.

ORCID iD

Meera Padhy

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