Abstract
Engaging in art and mindfulness activities has been found to have numerous positive effects on individuals regardless of age or setting. In recent years there have been an increased number of these programs finding their way into the correctional system. Research indicates that there are multiple benefits for individuals who are incarcerated that engage in these activities. The purpose of this volume is to highlight some of the successful implementations of art and mindfulness programs within the criminal justice system. The authors included in this issue represent a variety of disciplines from both the social sciences and arts in order to develop multidisciplinary understanding, discussion and potential collaboration.
Art is a helper in times of trouble, as a means of understanding the conditions of human existence and of facing the frightening aspects of those conditions, the creation of a meaningful order offering refuge from the unmanageable confusion of the outer reality-these most welcome aids are grasped by people in distress.
The arts have a profound effect on the human experience and are a critically important part of society with the potential to promote healing and well-being according to Americans for the Arts and the National Policy Roundtables. The goal of the National Policy Roundtable (as conceived by Robert Redford in 2006) was to bring leaders from business, government, arts, and the social science to envision new ways to advance the arts and engage in social action. The topic of the 2013 Roundtable was Arts and Healing: Mind, Body, and Community, to expand the understanding of the role that art can play in the rehabilitation of individuals who have experienced both mental and physical trauma.
While the participants of this roundtable focused on the impact of arts within the community, the military, and the health care system, their findings are applicable to those involved in the criminal justice system in both the community and behind bars. They maintain that “the arts have the capacity to drive the healing process, building healthier individuals and stronger communities” (National Arts Policy Roundtable, 2014, p. 4). Research indicates that incorporating therapies such as music, visual art, dance, poetry, drama, and yoga provides an outlet for self-expression within rehabilitative settings, and can decrease anxiety as well as restore a patient’s emotional balance. As a result, the overall health outcomes and quality of life of participants is significantly improved. For many who have experienced trauma or have difficulty expressing their emotions and communicating their needs, various art forms allow them to tell their story without the stigma often associated with divulging their feelings. Thus, they argue for increased availability of art programming in communities and within a multitude of institutional settings. This issue of The Prison Journal is devoted to the benefits of art and mindfulness prison programs at both the individual and institutional level.
Art behind bars is not a new concept, as the incarcerated have always been engaged in various forms of art during imprisonment. Many states have prison art programs, some as part of their education departments, others through colleges, and still others the result of volunteer artists. These programs are developed by outside artists who come into prisons to provide support or organize performances and exhibits that validate the importance of art in dehumanizing spaces. Art programs on the inside encourage participants to explore and express their creativity and take offenders down a path that can lead to a new sense of self. Importantly, these programs continue to gain support throughout the country. As Kornfield (1997) notes, such multidimensional programs simultaneously offer therapy, education, vocation, and recreation. Likewise, there is also a growing body of literature that documents the impact of the practice of mindfulness on prison populations (Auty, Copeland, & Liebling, 2015; Epstein, Blake, & Gonzalez, 2017; Himelstein, 2011; Muirhead & Fortune, 2016).
Although there is a significant body of literature which supports the value of art and mindfulness programming in prison, little has found its way into the criminological literature. One must also search the archives of art, drama, music, dance, mindfulness, education, and psychology journals to gain a true sense of the impact that art has had on justice-involved individuals. The programs discussed in the art/mindfulness behind bars research cover a wide variety of art forms and theoretical models, including art/mindfulness access models, arts/mindfulness education, or as a means of therapy. All describe how participating in both art and mindfulness programs can be an important factor in the rehabilitation of inmates.
The existing body of literature relating to these programs is largely descriptive, consisting primarily of short-term studies, and often based on anecdotal information and subjective reports of the positive impact of art and mindfulness programs. While the methodology of these studies varies, there is great consistency in the findings. That is, participants report these programs to be life changing. While not an exhaustive list of their impact, they include: art as an impetus for further education; art as a means of increasing self-esteem and positive self-identity; art as a tool to decrease stress; and use of art as a tool to positively express feelings and reconnect with family.
Education is considered to be integral to individual growth, which contributes to ones’ sense of well-being and potential for increased opportunities. Many inmates have struggled in school, lost interest in the educational process, and attained low levels of education. Art and mindfulness education differs from the authoritarian and passive system of learning found in most classrooms. Thus, participants find these classes more accessible and rewarding, and teachers are viewed as role models who are “there to help” and serve as a positive link to the outside world (Currie, 1989). These programs often serve as a reintroduction to education and are often the impetus to pursue further education or become more committed to other classes (Brazier, Hurry, & Wilson, 2005; Catterall, Dumais, & Hamden-Thompson, 2012; Cleveland, 2011; Dean & Field, 2003; Halperin, Kessler, & Braunschweiger, 2012; Jiang & Winfree, 2006; Melnick, 1984; Rosenbaum & Spivack, 2014).
While taking part in art and mindfulness programs is enjoyable, it is especially beneficial for those who endure sustained deprivation inside prison. Most inmates have grown up with the belief that who they are is not important and what they have to offer is of little importance. Many are introduced to these arts and mindfulness forms for the first time, and the experience permits them to find and express their unique voice, discovering a more creative, healthy image through their successes. One of the most consistent findings from studies across numerous disciplines is an increase in self-worth, confidence, and empowerment (Brewster, 2010; Cohen, 2009, 2012; Currie, 1989; Dunphy, 1999; Gussack, 2004, 2007, 2009; Lazzari, Amundson, & Jackson, 2005; Rosenbaum & Spivack, 2014). In addition, inmates report an improvement in social and life skills, such as tolerance, problem solving, conflict resolution, and working well in groups (Blinn, 1995; Cohen, 2012; Dunphy, 1999; Langelid, Maki, Raundrup, & Svensson, 2009). Participants also report that this engagement provided them with the opportunity to construct an identity based around a positive achievement and supported the belief that that they can realize positive change in their lives (Currie, 1989; Gude, 2009; Rosenbaum & Spivack, 2014; Shrift, 2006).
Aside from changes in individuals, this research also suggests that there are clear institutional and system benefits from both forms of programming. Unfortunately, there are few studies (Arts in Correction, 2018; Ezell & Levy, 2003; Melnick, 1984) that document a decrease in recidivism; the investigations mainly follow a small group of offenders over a short period of time and, thus, cannot be considered conclusive. However, numerous studies show a decrease in disciplinary reports for participants in art and mindfulness programs compared to nonparticipants (Brewster, 1983, 2010, 2014; Cleveland, 2011; Ezell & Levy, 2003; Himelstein, 2011; Hughes, 2005; Worral & Kaine, 1978). Furthermore, research suggests that the availability of artistic and mindfulness opportunities in prison significantly decreases levels of stress and depression (Austin, 2007; Belton & Barclay, 2008; Dean & Field, 2003; Gussack, 2007), resulting in fewer disciplinary reports, as well as lowered health costs. Finally, the need for disciplinary control can be lessened when inmates have a model and venue to express feelings of anger and aggression in a positive and acceptable manner (Belton & Barclay, 2008; Rosenbaum & Spivack, 2014).
While methodologically sound research is clearly needed to assess the long-term benefits and recidivism of those offenders who engage in art and mindfulness programs, the existent data indicate that the programs offer clear short-term benefits in correctional facility settings. Clearly, the goal of both punitive and rehabilitative programs is desistance from crime. However, currently, the ability to measure the impact of art and mindfulness programs on desistance is difficult. While there is no direct evidence of art and mindfulness programs and desistance, Cheliotis and Jordanoska (2016), Davey, Day, and Balfour (2014), and Miner-Romanoff (2016) make strong arguments for the use of indirect or “soft conditions” as alternatives to direct measures of desistance. “Soft” measures, such as increases in self-confidence, self-esteem, social and life skills, as well as attitudinal changes, have all been found to be correlated (though indirectly) with desistance (Cheliotis, 2014). The numerous studies mentioned in this essay attest to the positive impact that art programs have on the psychological and social well-being of incarcerated participants. Both Cheliotis and Jordanoska (2016) and Miner-Romanoff (2016) argue that these programs are a catalyst for positive changes in well-being which provides the foundational support to allow desistance from crime.
Rather than focus on the reason for incarceration, these programs are strength-based, offering a focus on vision and expression, rather than the individual’s current situation. With program engagement, the individual learns a skill, finds their voice, and develops creative means to express feelings and frustration in a positive manner—with the skill potentially changing their life trajectory. In the process of acquiring a new skill or completing a course, individuals often find the courage to attempt other new challenges. As one young woman in Spoken Word stated, “I never thought I could write something good and then perform it, but I did. I wonder what else I might be good at” (Rosenbaum & Spivack, 2014). Furthermore, many of these programs take the work from inside to the community via public art exhibits, publishing completed works, and so on, thus opening a window into the lives of the inside artists. These public exhibitions both validate the artist while at the same time humanize them to the public; this can be transformative for both the individual and members of the community. In addition, upon release, many of the participants find a “home” within the art or yoga communities.
Perhaps the value of these programs can be best summed up in the following quote: Arts-based interventions offer more than “just” the development of the skills of offenders; they may enable them to at least begin to think differently about themselves, their families, their relationships with their peers, and their relationships to the prison regime and the opportunities it offers. More generally, they may help prisoners to “imagine” different possible futures, different social networks, different identities and different lifestyles. In and of themselves, arts-based interventions are unlikely to deliver the concrete, reliable sentence and resettlement plans which many prisoners will need to tackle the full range of needs, issues and challenges that they face; but they may help to foster and to reinforce motivation for and commitment to the change processes that these formal interventions and processes exist to support. They may also play a part in bringing positive social contacts and networks into the prison-based process. (McNeill, 2011, pp. 9-10)
This special issue of The Prison Journal, Art and Mindfulness Behind Bars examines the impact of mindfulness and arts programs in a variety of institutions through the lenses of multiple disciplines. This interactive online issue is unique in offering a link for viewing each article’s program focus and operation.
Special Issue Contents
The articles in this issue represent a variety of programs that encourage both creativity and mindfulness. The initial findings of some of this research were first presented at the 2014 ASC Meeting in San Francisco—in the first panel devoted to this topic. Since that time, the authors have continued to come together in either panels or roundtables to discuss the progress in our research, the issues surrounding program evaluation, and, most importantly, the development of new programs in carceral settings. During this period, I have had the opportunity to attend both Shakespeare in Prison conferences and the California Art in Corrections conferences where I was introduced to the work of scholars in other disciplines. My experience in these various settings was both exciting and frustrating. It became clear that there were multiple groups of scholars, artists, and correctional personnel all promoting art and mindfulness programs behind bars and, yet, we were doing so in our own “silos.” Undoubtedly, there was a need to find a venue that would highlight the work of scholars from both criminal justice and the arts—so I proposed this special issue for The Prison Journal.
The articles included here represent only a thumbnail sketch of the work currently underway. Organizations such as The Actors Gang Prison Project in California, Rehabilitation Through Art, Shakespeare Behind Bars, Drama Club, Marin Shakespeare Company, and Prison Yoga Project (among others) have been at the forefront of the movement to bring these programs to incarcerated men and women across the country. All deserve recognition for the work that they do. While it was impossible to highlight the variety of programs which exist, those highlighted are intended to give readers examples of existent programs and their impact.
The first article by Rousseau, Jackson, and Long presents a case study of YogaHOPE’s Trauma Informed Mind Body program (TIMBo), a gender-responsive, trauma-informed mindfulness program in a women’s prison. Through the cultivation of mindfulness (using yoga, meditation, and nonjudgmental self-inquiry), their goal is to assist in empowering women and assist in their recovery. The authors describe the basic principles, the curriculum, and challenges of implementation, as well as the methods of program assessment. Both qualitative and quantitative measures were used to assess trauma and determine whether there was a noticeable decrease in the symptoms of traumatic stress (depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD]) while also developing new coping skills. Data from the preadministration and postadministration of psychometric self-report scales indicate positive changes. Qualitative data provided assessments of what tools were useful to the women in their development of coping skills. While the results for the pilot project were positive and useful in understanding program impact, they are preliminary, and additional research that incorporates a larger sample of women is needed.
The second contribution examines the impact of another gender-responsive program. The Art of Yoga Project is a trauma-informed approach designed for adolescent girls in custody, which incorporates yoga, art, and journaling. Middleton, Harris, and Ackerman use a variety of methods (self-report surveys, satisfaction surveys, pre–post questionnaires and interviews, mood interviews, and staff interviews) to gage “soft measures” of self-control, self-respect, and self-awareness and to understand the adjustment, resilience, and potential for success upon release. While the findings suggest the young women do benefit from the program, a more comprehensive longitudinal study is necessary to gauge whether these benefits are long lasting.
In the third article, Dewey, Muthig, Colter, Brock, and Abott describe the Wyoming Pathways from Prison classes that emphasize the power of incorporating arts-based and mindfulness programming into college courses. The two courses, Introduction to Stoic Philosophy and Its Practical Application and Telling My Story: Voices from the Wyoming Women’s Center were taught to students in state institutions. Both offered a chance for self-reflection through assigned reading and writing, using the principles of mindfulness. Students found the classes to be valuable in building skills (critical thinking, writing, communication, and public speaking) as well as transformative (becoming better versions of themselves). The authors acknowledge the holistic approach of art and mindfulness as essential components in prison education.
Lucas, Fiche, and Concilio’s article describes the development of an international exchange—university-based prison theater programs—which brought together faculty and students from three universities (University of Michigan, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, and Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina) to establish a new prison theater program at a women’s facility in Brazil. The article takes the reader on their journey as they document both the creative process and challenges faced throughout its development. The authors identify the positive, though often frustrating, experiences through the lenses of the faculty, the students, and the incarcerated women who took part in the program, as well as the importance for all three groups in coming to understand the different realities of life in prison and in universities in the United States and Brazil.
In the next article, Mary Cohen places her work with the Oakdale Choir within the frameworks of desistance and reintegration. The Choir is comprised of members from both Oakdale Prison and the community who meet weekly for rehearsals and eventual performances. She documents the process and progress of member social interactions and connections for both groups (increased self-esteem for offenders and greater understanding of one another). She documents the impact on various community institutions such as University officials (through implementation of the Liberal Arts Beyond Bars) and Department of Corrections (through the development of restorative justice programs). Cohen makes a strong argument for the use of rituals, such as choral singing, as a positive means of reintegration of prisoners into the community.
The final article in this issue also focuses on the use of visual art as an important restorative justice tool in reintegration. Tim Holler explores the various stage challenges in the development and implementation of the Community Arts and Reintegration Project. This program is, in part, modeled after the Philadelphia Mural Arts Project, where community members and offenders work together to create a mural. While Holler describes the difficulty in bringing the mural to fruition, he documents how the focus on the collective nature of a community beautification effort supports the reintegration of offenders into the folds of the community.
In summary, this issue of The Prison Journal identifies the multitude of ways that mindfulness and arts can play an important role in both the rehabilitation and reintegration of offenders. Each of these programs stresses the importance of using creative curricula (be it yoga, art, theater, or music) to create an arena in which those on the inside can make connections and develop skills which increase their well-being and ease their transition back into the community.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.