Making Sense of Chinese Employees’ Suicidal Ideation: A Psychological Strain

Abstract

Using the strain theory of suicide, this study examines how psychological strains influence suicide ideation via the mediating mechanism of the meaning in life. To check the hypothesized model, data were drawn from professional employees (n=687) across six organizations of various business types to increase the variability of respondent perception and the generalizability of the study findings. The results showed significant correlations among psychological strains, meaning in life, and suicide ideation. Furthermore, this study provides evidence for the mediation effect of meaning in life in the relationship between psychological strain and suicide ideation. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Keywords

Strain theory of suicide meaning in life suicide ideation Chinese employees organizations

Introduction

Suicide is acknowledged as a major health concern globally. The World Health Organization (WHO) reported that suicides represent 56% of all violent deaths and it is estimated that each year more than 800,000 people seek death by suicide worldwide (WHO, 2014). Sun and Zhang (2015) posited that suicide is a key public health issue in China, accounting for approximately 22% of global suicides. In 2002, Phillips et al. stated that the mean annual suicide rate in China was consistently reported at 23 for each 100,000, totaling 287,000 suicide deaths per year. Even though it is declining in frequency (Wang et al., 2008), suicide is considered a major source of death in China. Hence, averting suicide attempts is one of the top priorities of WHO, with particular concern in developing countries including China (Malakouti et al., 2009).

Historically in China, the suicide pattern is unlike that of Western countries. For instance, in the Western models, 90% of suicide deaths are considered to be related to mental illnesses (Harris & Barraclough, 1997). Hence, in Western societies, most prevention efforts have been focused on mental illness identification and treatment. On the contrary, the majority of previous studies conducted in China suggest that only a small percentage of people who commit suicide have mental disorders. For example, Zhang, Dong, Delprino, and Zhou (2009) and Zhang and Zhou (2011) found that less than half of the suicide victims in China had been diagnosed with a mental problem. These findings indicate that some non-psychiatric (e.g., psychosocial) factors may also play important roles in suicide.

Despite its significance, surprisingly few empirical studies have comprehensively addressed the psychosocial factors related to suicide ideation and suicide (Zhang, Wieczorek, Conwell, & Tu, 2011). For the most part, these studies tested psychosocial factors in the Western context, including peer relationships (Tomori, 1999), low social support (Beautrais, 2004), negative causal attributional style (Schwartz, Kaslow, Seeley, & Lewinsohn, 2000), and self-esteem (Jordan, Spencer, Zanna, Hoshino-Browne, & Correll, 2003). Zhang et al. (2010) are one of the few researchers who has addressed the abovementioned gaps in research on suicide in the Chinese context, arguing that psychological strain is also one of the key factors contributing to suicide. According to strain theory of suicide (STS) (Zhang, 2005), the psychological strain is a psychological frustration or suffering of an individual that comes from experiencing two or more conflicting realities (Zhang et al., 2014). STS further explains that psychological strain in the form of differential values, lack of coping skills, unrealized aspirations, and relative deprivation have significant linkages with suicide. The strain experience can affect individuals in many ways. It may lead to mental disorders, including alcohol and substance abuse, which may also result in increasingly deviant behavior (Merton, 1957).

Understanding why and how psychological strains contribute to suicide ideation represent the next stage of research. In addition to some physical and mental problems, strains can affect people existentially. The feeling that one has an important purpose in life has been seen as a critical component of being human (Baumeister, 1991), and this purposefulness provides an individual with a reason for living (De Klerk, 2005). As a result, individuals with meaningful lives experience fulfillment and significance (Frankl, 2005). Also, meaning in life (MIL) plays a critical role in workplace wellness as well as having a direct effect on employee well-being in organizations. Empirically, the sense of life having meaning is associated with less negative emotions, less substance abuse (Feldman & Snyder, 2005), and lesser suicidal thinking (Lester & Badro, 1992). In a similar vein, the findings from a pilot study by Buchanan, Maccoby, and Dornbusch (1991) suggest that individuals who are unclear regarding the meaning in their life are most likely to experience depression and despair as well as thinking about suicide and suicidal behavior. Taken together, the higher an individual’s MIL, the lower his/her suicidal thinking, and vice versa. We argue that in the relationship between strain and suicide ideation, MIL is a mediator that provides a mechanism, affecting the direct relationship among various strains and suicide ideation.

The current study makes several meaningful contributions to the positive psychology literature and literature of suicide. Based on STS (Zhang, 2005), this study tries to enrich the theories of suicide by explaining the unique pattern of Chinese suicidal phenomena. Specifically, this research study attempts to unveil the reason Chinese people who do not have any mental problems have suicidal behaviors. Furthermore, we note that, though suicide ideation is viewed as a critical step towards suicide (Hintikka et al., 1998), to date few studies have focused on suicide ideation (Park, Cho, & Moon, 2010). Thus, studying suicide predictors and highlighting some significant insights in this area are greatly significant (Arria et al., 2009). Such research could help academia and practitioners become acquainted with the patterns of different psychosocial problems which can predict suicidal ideation. Knowledge of these patterns can help to develop a comprehensive strategy of practice for maximizing the likelihood of identifying employees who are actively engaged in suicidal thinking (Lynch et al., 1999) and as well is necessary for planning health-care policies to mitigate suicide and its related issues (Kessler et al., 2005).

In addition, this study attempts to unfold a powerful intrapersonal determinant of suicide ideation, that is, MIL, which is formally defined as, “goal-directedness or purposefulness” (Ryff & Singer, 1998). MIL is viewed as an important psychological factor that enhances general well-being (Bonebright, Clay, & Ankenmann, 2000) and protects individuals from negative consequences (Pearson & Sheffield, 1989). Surprisingly, little is known about the role of MIL in the context of organizations (De Klerk, 2005). Therefore, this study also aims to deepen the understanding in the MIL literature (Frazier, Lee, & Steger, 2006) and to respond to the call for studying life meaning as a mediator (Pargament, 2002). Meanwhile, the current study can help decision makers to develop specific suicide-prediction strategies and more effective intervention approaches.

Literature and theoretical development

Psychological strains and suicide ideation: The STS

Agnew (1992) defined general strain as “the relationship in which others are not treating the individuals as she/he would like to be treated” (p. 48). However, researchers use and conceptualize the term strain in different ways. For instance, Zhang (2005) identified strain as a psychological frustration that comes from conflicting stressors. Further, STS proposed four types of strains: value strain, aspiration strain, deprivation strain, and coping strain. According to STS, all four types of strain lead to suicidal behaviors (Zhang et al., 2011). Zhang and Zhao (2013) stated that value strain is formed because of two conflicting social values that are internalized in an individual life. The competition of these conflicting social facts or beliefs in a person’s value system eventually results in frustration, discomfort, or even hopelessness in the daily life of that individual (Zhang et al., 2011).

According to Zhang et al. (2011), an individual experiences aspiration strain when there is a difference between an individual’s expectations or ambitions and the reality of the individual’s reason for existence. The two incompatible societal realities are the individual’s ambition and the fact that may prevent individuals from attaining it. For example, an aspiration strain results in the following life conditions: marriages (selection of marriage partners), educational achievements, and career starts (job choice), etc.

Webber (2007) wrote that relative deprivation is “an outcome of a comparative process and can account for crimes of acquisition, of frustration accruing from blocked goals, or emotive violence, such as between individuals or factions based on territory, reputation, or respect” (p. 108). In relative deprivation strain (Zhang et al., 2011), a person experiences deprivation strain in situations such as where financially depressed individuals feel that other people’s identical backgrounds allow them to have a much-enhanced lifestyle. The individual who experiences this type of strain compares typically what he currently possesses with what others own. For example, a person might experience the state of deprivation in any of the following communal living functions: a low financial state in comparison to other individuals, a lack of possibilities for finding a marriage partner, a lack of opportunities for further higher education, etc. Baron (2006) considered relative deprivation regarding money satisfaction, the opportunity for prospects, economic accomplishment, and monetary goals. Passas (1997) proposed that individuals with fewer chances, or who were not outfitted with the resources to attain the cultural ambition of success, were more probable to experience relative deprivation. Consequently, a feeling of resentment and hostility is generated which may develop into violent behaviors such as suicide (Baron & Hartnagel, 1998).

Lazarus and Folkman (1987) defined coping as “cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person” (p. 142). While everyone will experience some degree of life crisis, some people are not capable of coping with the problems they face. Hence, they continuously undergo coping strain (Zhang et al., 2011). Those individuals who are not capable of coping adequately with the unfavorable situations have strain. For example, some crises are facing loss: loss of status, money loss, separation, job loss, or demise of a close individual, etc. These crises result in severe strains in the individual, and then it is difficult to survive with all these adverse life events (Heikkinen, Isomets, Marttunen, & Aro, 1995), including suicide ideation.

Suicide ideation represents a heightened state of emotional distress (Fitzpatrick, Irwin, LaGory, & Ritchey, 2007). The Institute of Medicine (2002, p. 28) refers to suicide ideation as “thoughts of harming or killing oneself.” The STS postulates that strain, resulting from incompatible and opposing stresses in an individual’s life, frequently leads to suicidal behavior (Zhang & Lester, 2008; Zhang & Song, 2006). In a similar vein, the findings from research carried out by Zhang et al. (2011) reported that all four types of strains (i.e., value, aspiration, deprivation, and coping) are associated with suicide. Suicide ideation is a critical part of the suicide process that finally leads to suicide (e.g., Barrios, Everett, Simon, & Brener, 2000; Hovey & King, 2002; Scocco & De Leo, 2002). Similarly, Brown, Beck, Steer, and Grisham (2000) argued that along with hopelessness, suicide ideation is associated with subsequent suicide attempts. Underpinning the STS and the above discussion, the following tentative hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 1 (H1): Psychological strains have a significant positive relationship with suicide ideation.

MIL as a mediator

MIL is viewed as an important psychological factor that improves general well-being (Bonebright et al., 2000) and guards individuals from any negative consequences (Pearson & Sheffield, 1989). A person having a meaningful life has been directly linked to authentic living and focusing on personal growth (Kenyon, 2000). Following this line of research, scholars have argued that having a more meaningful life is a proven link to different positive outcomes, for example, enjoyment in work (Bonebright et al., 2000), life satisfaction (Steger, Frazier, Oishi, & Kaler, 2006), good physical and psychological health (Antonovsky, 1987), and happiness (Debats, Lubbe, & Wezeman, 1993). On the contrary, the lack of meaning brings issues in the form of tedium, hopelessness, and the absence of life goals. Numerous studies reveal a strong direct relationship between meaninglessness and different negative outcomes. For instance, meaninglessness has been linked positively to depression and anxiety (Zika & Chamberlain, 1992), substance abuse and alcoholism (Debats, 1999), and psychopathology (Schulenberg, Schnetzer, & Buchanan, 2011). Also, researchers such as Feldman and Snyder (2005) and Henry et al. (2014) suggested that low MIL has a positive association with suicidal ideation, substance abuse, anxiety, and greater need for therapy, as well as other forms of distress.

It should be noted that suicide attempts are not attributable to a single factor, but instead are a combination of several negative factors that, at a particular point in time, generate a mental state that discards life and encourages death (Orbach, Mikulincer, Gilboa‐Schechtman, & Sirota, 2003). STS suggests that psychological strain is one of the up-stream reasons that results in mental problems and suicidal behaviors. The strain is comprised of at least two stressors or two factors, either pushing or pulling a person in unusual directions. Such patterns take in at least two different realities: aspiration and cultural values, individual status and that of others, and a coping with crisis ability (Zhang et al., 2011). Strains experience can affect individuals existentially.

Consequently, all assumptions about the world and one^’s future are challenged making their lives meaningless. Since MIL implies that one has an understanding of life and belief in something, Frankl (1985) suggested that this understanding represent some goal or purpose for life, for which the individual strives. Based on STS, we argue that strains affect one^’s system of meaning and the construct of the belief that may lead one^’s life meaningless along with physical, psychological, and social losses. Moreover, some theoretical arguments proposed that psychological and social factors are predicted to influence personal MIL (Fry, 2000; Ross, 2017), but empirical validation of such an effect lacks in the literature (Emmons, 2005).

Some past studies have shown negative correlations between MIL and each of stress, anxiety, and depression. For example, MIL is known to be negatively associated with depression (Mascaro & Rosen, 2005), anxiety (Zika & Chamberlain, 1992), neuroticism (Jaarsma, Pool, Ranchor, & Sanderman, 2007), and stress (Harlow, Newcomb, & Bentler, 1986). However, the association between psychological strain and suicide ideation, as mediated by MIL, has not been adequately tested in the literature. In other words, is the influence of psychological strains on suicide ideation transmitted, in part, through MIL? Zhang et al. (2011) argue that moderators or mediators in a model play a key role in determining the occurrences of suicidal behaviors that result from the strain. Further, Frazier, Tix, and Barron (2004) posited that it is central to consider if the relationship between a predictor (e.g., psychological strain) and outcome (e.g., suicide ideation) can be further explained by a third variable (i.e., MIL), particularly for developing advanced theory.

Frustration-aggression theory (Barker, Dembo, & Lewin, 1941) postulates that strains and frustration are the perceptions of an individual about being prevented from obtaining a goal. Consequently, aggressive inclinations that stimulate negative emotions will result. More specifically, the probability of an aggressive response may adversely affect the life meaning of individuals. Previous studies have shown a direct positive relationship between meaningful life and authentic living (Kenyon, 2000) while having less meaning or absence of life meaning has been associated with inappropriate behaviors including substance abuse and suicide ideation (e.g., Edwards & Holden, 2003; Harlow et al., 1986).

On the basis of the literature above and arguments, a conclusion can be drawn that in the relationship between psychological strain and suicide ideation, MIL may be a mediator that provides a mechanism to affect the direct link between psychological strain and suicidal ideation. However, given that there is limited support available in the literature for the underlying role of MIL as a mediator among psychological strains and suicide ideation, and as well as to advance theoretical insight (e.g., Baron, 2004), the following hypotheses are proposed:

Hypothesis 2 (H2): Psychological strain has a significant relationship with meaning in life.

Hypothesis 3 (H3): Meaning in life has a significant relationship with suicidal ideation.

Hypothesis 4 (H4): Meaning in life has a significant mediating role in the relationship between psychological strain and suicidal ideation.

Method

Sample and procedure

The data for the current study were collected as part of a project supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China. The study aim was to investigate the relationship between psychological strains and suicide phenomena with an underlying mechanism of MIL. Nine Executive MBA students were hired as research assistants and were given basic training regarding the survey instrument and data collection process. The research assistants were divided into three groups with three members in each. To find volunteers to answer the survey questions, different business sectors were assigned to each group. Initially, each group approached either the CEO or human resource personnel for their consent in cooperating for this study. They found six organizations which were willing to participate in the study. The reason for targeting more organizations was to increase the generalizability of our study findings. Also, the utilization of multiple industries and organizations increases the respondent perception variability (Ostroff, 2007). The targeted organizations included two banking offices, one insurance company, two petroleum manufacturing plants, and one engine making plant in China. The size of these organizations ranged from 1000 to 6000 employees. The researcher’s team randomly selected 150 employees from each organization, resulting in a total of 900 respondents.

Before the circulation of questionnaires among respondents, a two-day professional course was offered to all 900 employees from the six organizations with the hope that they would be willing to participate in this investigation actively. Before the sessions started, researchers utilized different channels (e-mail, telephone, personal meetings, etc.) to briefly explain the aim of the project to the participants as well as to assure them that their responses would be kept confidential. The randomly selected employees were invited to participate in the two-day training program. Out of the 900 employees, 750 attended the training program and also responded to our survey instrument. The survey instrument was divided into three parts: psychological strains, MIL, and suicide ideation.

Further, to minimize common method bias, the researchers personally distributed the questionnaire among the participants at three (beginning, middle, and end of training sessions) points in time. Out of the 750 questionnaires distributed among respondents, 734 were received back. Out of these 734 questionnaires, 47 were incomplete and hence omitted from the analyses. The number of final valid questionnaires was 687, resulting in a response rate of 91.6%. To make sure the confidentiality, respondents were told to mention neither their name nor the name of their organization. This anonymity for the respondents is assumed to assist in getting accurate and honest information. Of this sample, 55% of the respondents were female, and 45% were male. The respondents were from different age categories: 41% were younger than 30 years old, 37.6% were between 31 and 40 years old, 14.3% were between 41 and 50 years old, and 7.1% were at least than 51 years old. Among the 687 respondents, 8.8% were top-level managers, 11.2% were middle-level managers, 22.7% were first line managers, and 57.4% were grassroots-level employees.

Measures

Psychological strain

The part of the questionnaire dealing with psychological strain was adopted from (Zhang et al., 2014). These psychological strain scales have been well testified to have good validity and reliability. This questionnaire had 60 items covering value strain, aspiration strain, deprivation strain, and coping strain. Example items are “despite having a great desire for something in my life. Still, I can never have these things,” “my life is worse than others,” and “among family and career, I am indecisive which one is most significant to me.” Respondents pointed out the level of their agreement to each of the items on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The reliability was 0.95.

Suicide ideation

For measuring suicide ideation, we used Xia et al.’s (Xia, Wang, He, & Ye, 2012; Xia, Wang, Wu, & Ye, 2002) SSIS (Self-Rating Suicide Ideation Scale) five-item short form. SSIS was developed from the Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation (Beck, Kovacs, & Weissman, 1979) to be the most appropriate for Chinese adults. Two sample items are “Sometimes I feel like I'm nothing” and “I want to end my life.” Scores were given on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The reliability was 0.83.

Meaning in life

The MIL portion of the questionnaire was measured using 23 items established by (Morgan & Farsides, 2009). We translated this 23-item questionnaire from English to Chinese and then employed back-translation (Brislin, 1973). To verify the accuracy of the translation and to correct identified discrepancies, two bilingual Chinese professors crosschecked both versions. Two example items are “So far, I am satisfied with everything I have achieved” and “My life is meaningful.” The participant answered the questions using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The reliability was 0.90.

Control variables

We controlled for certain demographic variables that might affect, directly or indirectly, our outcome variable. This study included gender, age, education, and position of the employees as control variables.

Analyses

To test hypothesized relationships, SEM was performed through Amos 22. Confirmatory factor analyses were performed to examine the psychometric properties of the construct (Table 1). The results reveal that the values of the goodness of fit index (GFI), comparative fit index (CFI), and root mean square (RMR) are all in acceptable ranges, that is, the GFI and CFI values are greater than 0.90, and the RMR value is less than 0.05. Moreover, all reliability statistics are also above the threshold value of 0.70 (Sekaran & Bougie, 2016). According to Sekaran and Bougie (2016), an internal consistency value close to 1 for a construct indicates good reliability; Table 1 shows that the internal consistency for each of our constructs is close to one.

Table 1.

Result of confirmatory factor analysis.

Variables	M	SD	Internal consistency	Cronbach’s alpha	CFI	GFI	RMR
Psychological strains					0.93	0.94	0.04
Value strain	2.41	0.54	0.89	0.88
Aspiration strain	2.65	0.63	0.86	0.89
Depriving strain	2.32	0.61	0.90	0.92
Coping strain	2.09	0.55	0.85	0.87
Overall life meaning	3.54	0.53	0.90	0.90	0.98	0.97	0.01

GFI: goodness of fit index; CFI: comparative fit index; RMR: root mean square.

In addition to acceptable reliability statistics, the study’s standardized factor loading was also significant (p<0.05). This value means that the convergent validity is adequate for the measurement items of psychological strains and overall life meaning. In the suicide ideation measurement, 100% of the variation was explained by SSIS in a test of factor analysis. This result confirms that SSIS is the most appropriate scale to measure suicide ideation.

The study findings regarding the control variables of gender, age, education, and position were interesting. The analysis confirmed that gender and age have only an insignificant influence on suicide ideation. However, it was found that education (β=0.25, p<0.01) and job position (β=0.31, p<0.01) in the organization to have a significantly negative correlation with suicide ideation, as was also shown in previous studies of suicide ideation. Lower levels of education and position mean greater influences of the factors on suicide ideation and vice versa.

Iacobucci, Saldanha, and Deng (2007) posited that structural equation modeling (SEM) is a better method than traditional regression analyses on both an empirical and a theoretical basis. Furthermore, Urbach and Ahlemann (2010) stated that SEM could reduce biases as it considers measurement errors. Hence, SEM was chosen as an appropriate statistical analysis method to confirm the proposed mediation hypotheses of this study.

This study follows the Baron and Kenny (1986) procedure for establishing mediation. According to this procedure, three different equations used in four steps are involved. Since mediation consists of the existence of a direct effect between two independent and the dependent variables to be mediated, the first step in the analysis is to prove a significant link between psychological strains (independent variable) and suicide ideation (dependent variable). In the second step, a significant relationship between psychological strains (independent variable) and overall life meaning (mediator) is required. In the third step, a significant link between life meaning (mediator) and suicide ideation (dependent variable) is needed. In the last step, in the presence of a mediator, the previous significant link must drop to insignificance (full mediation) or must significantly drop to a lower significant value (partial mediation) between the independent and dependent variables.

Results

The descriptive statistics and correlations of all study variables are shown in Table 2. As the study respondents were from different organizations, we assessed whether the responses differed between organizations. The study variables related in the expected ways. For instance, all four types of psychological strains were positively correlated with suicide ideation and negatively associated with MIL.

Table 2.

Means, standard deviations, and correlations (n = 687).

Variables	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
1 Gender	1.45	.50	—
2 Age	1.88	.92	–.17**	—
3 Education	2.89	.70	–.13**	–.05	—
4 Position	1.69	.89	–.29**	.49**	.28**	—
5 Value strain	2.41	.54	–.05	–.04	–.04	–.09*	(.88)
6 Aspiration strain	2.65	.63	–.05	.05	.09*	–.20**	.72**	(.89)
7 Depriving strain	2.32	.61	–.03	–.03	–.04	.22**	.68**	.84**	(.92)
8 Coping strain	2.09	.55	–.06	–.02	–.01	.11**	.75**	.72**	.72**	(.87)
9 Suicide ideation	2.05	.64	–.19**	.05	–.17**	–.31**	.47**	.51**	.48**	.61**	(.83)
10 Overall life meaning	3.54	.53	.23**	–.11**	–.21**	–.29**	–.44**	–.51**	–.48**	–.48**	–.50**	(.90)

Note: Cronbach’s alphas appear on the diagonal in parentheses. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01.

Dummy coded: 0 = female, 1 = male.

The results of the first model (psychological strains—suicide ideation) of this study according to the Baron and Kenny (1986) procedure reveal a significantly positive linkage among psychological strains and suicide ideation (β=0.56, p < 0.001) with basic fits (GFI=0.932, CFI=0.912, RMR=0.041). Significant and positive links between suicide ideation and each of value strain (β=0.48, p < 0.001), aspiration strain (β=0.50, p < 0.001), depriving strain (β=0.49, p < 0.001), and coping strain (β=0.60, p < 0.001) (the four independent variables) were obtained. Hence, H1 of the study is supported.

After entering MIL as a mediator in the second model to analyze Hypotheses 2 and 3, the results show that there is a significant and positive linkage between psychological strains and MIL (β=0.46, p < 0.001). There is also a significant negative linkage between MIL and suicide ideation (β=–0.51, p < 0.001). Accordingly, H2 and H3 are supported. It is worth noting that the significance level between psychological strains and suicide ideation significantly drops to β=0.15 (GFI=0.94, CFI=0.91, RMR=0.03). This drop reveals that the psychological strain and suicide ideation relationship is partially mediated by overall MIL. As a result, we also see that H4 is not rejected (Table 3 and Figure 1). It is worth mentioning that all the results in Table 3 are based on un-standardized estimates, although the links revealed in Figure 1 is based on standardized estimates (beta values).

Figure 1.

Theoretical model and test of main effects (standardized estimates).

Table 3.

Variable main effects (unstandardized estimates).

Effects	β	SE	CR	p
Overall life meaning← Psychological strains	–0.562	0.071	7.219	***
Suicide ideation ← Psychological strains	0.193	0.129	0.968	*
Suicide ideation ← Overall life meaning	–0.636	0.077	9.891	***
Value strain← Psychological strains	1.102	0.131	8.992	***
Aspiration strain← Psychological strains	1.216	0.134	9.143	***
Depriving strain← Psychological strains	1.008	0.112	8.972	***
Coping strain← Psychological strains	1.001	0.009	8.742	***

*p<0.05; ***p<0.001.CR: Composite Reliability.

We also test for MIL mediation in the reverse direction, using suicide ideation as the independent variable and psychological strain as the dependent variable; this is known as a feedback model. According to Baron and Kenny, the feedback model might also qualify as a type of mediation known as reverse mediation. Accordingly, the partial correlation between independent and dependent variables would be equal to zero in the presence of this mediator (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Iacobucci et al., 2007). After performing the reverse mediation analysis (suicide ideation → MIL → psychological strains), the model fit indexes are as follows: GFI=0.89, CFI=0.86, RMR=0.06. Even though the model fit indexes are close enough to 1, the classic mediation model has enough advantage to prefer it (GFI=0.94, CFI=0.91, RMR=0.03). The reason is that the classic mediation model has sufficiently better dominance of model fits in comparison to the reverse model. As a result, this study’s data support the classic-path model rather than the reverse-path model.

Discussion and implications

This study aimed to test the effect of psychological strains on suicide ideation empirically and to test the underlying mechanism of MIL as a mediator of the relationships among psychological strains and suicide ideation. The findings provide a plausible understanding of the linkage among psychological strains and suicide ideation, including evidence concerning the causal direction as well as the mechanism underlying the relationships between psychological strains and suicide ideation.

Significant correlations were found among all four dimensions of psychological strain, MIL, and suicide ideation. Our study findings affirm that psychological strains are significantly and positively related to suicide ideation. These results further confirm the findings of previous studies that psychological strains boost suicide rates (e.g., Zhang et al., 2011; Zhang, Wang, Xia, Liu, & Jung, 2012). Importantly, although the relationship between psychological strain and completed suicide has been much researched (Zhang et al., 2009, Zhang, Lester, Zhao, & Zhou, 2013; Zhang & Zhao, 2013), the psychological strain effect on suicide ideation is relatively less studied, despite the fact that suicide ideation occurs more frequently (Patterson & Holden, 2012) and plays a central role in detecting and stopping completed suicide (Palmer, 2004). It is essential to highlight early steps in the suicide process, for example, suicide ideation, because then the suicide process could be detected and is halted before a suicide plan or attempt is made (Arria et al., 2009; Harris & Barraclough, 1997).

Furthermore, this study’s findings regarding psychological strain and life meaning are in line with the proposed hypotheses. Psychological strain (i.e., value, aspiration, deprivation, and coping) is strongly inversely associated with MIL. This finding is in line with former studies (Harlow et al., 1986; Mascaro & Rosen, 2005; Zika & Chamberlain, 1992) showing a negative relationship between stress, depression, anxiety, and life meaning. According to STS, the strain is made up of at least two pressures or stressors pulling and pushing an individual in different directions (Zhang et al., 2011). These negative combinations of various factors generate a mental state of mind that rejects the meaning of life and encourages death (Orbach et al., 2003). Similarly, the study strengthens the findings of the prior studies that meaning and significance in life are vital for an individual to function normally. Much like previous studies (viz., Aviad-Wilchek, Ne’eman-Haviv, & Malka, 2017; Edwards & Holden, 2003; Patterson & Holden, 2012), we found a strong negative correlation between MIL and suicide ideation.

The significance of our study findings is further improved because there is no existing literature on the mediating effects of MIL on the relationship between psychological strain and suicide ideation for professional employees in China. Although the mediating mechanism of MIL has been reported in a few other studies (Jim & Andersen, 2007; Steger & Frazier, 2005), the current study confirms the partial mediation of MIL in the relationships among psychological strains and suicide ideation. Our study offers evidence that psychological strain can affect suicide ideation via MIL. A meaningful life entails an affirmative commitment to some notion of MIL, and this gives one the framework from which to understand or view life. Moreover, a life meaning involves fulfilling this conception of life and this realization may be a sense of significant relatedness, or integration (Battista & Almond, 1973). For example, Frankl (1963) recommended that this understanding represents some purpose, function, or goal for life, for which the individual will make every effort. The psychological strains affect the life meaning, and thus, individual thinks there is no value in life. Consequently, some inappropriate thinking develops into later lethal behaviors including suicide.

In addition, the findings of the present study suggest that in considering the psychological well-being of workers, it is not only important to examine the direct effects of factors such as psychological strains on suicide ideation but also to consider mechanisms such as MIL. It is not uncommon for organizations to target factors directly associated with suicide ideation such as depression, anxiety, hopelessness, substance use, aggressive behaviors, stressful life events, low self-esteem, and poor peer relationships (Brener, Hassan, & Barrios, 1999; Dogra, Basu, Das, & Chaudhuri, 2008; Hintikka et al., 2009; Konick & Gutierrez, 2005; Wilburn & Smith, 2005), but this study’s proof of mediating effects alerts researchers to the existence of indirect influences on suicide existing through reduced MIL. Although the results show that MIL is not the sole significant predictor in determining whether the presence of psychological strains will lead to committing suicide, notable scholars have concluded that life meaning is an essential psychological variable that promotes well-being (Fry, 2001) and guards individuals against specific adverse outcomes (Pearson & Sheffield, 1989). In a similar vein, several counseling psychologists have made statements about the importance of life meaning to health psychology (Harris & Thoresen, 2003), psychotherapy (Gelso & Woodhouse, 2003), and career counseling (Savickas, 2003). Counselors and psychologists should focus on increasing employee perception of MIL to raise the quality of life and, ultimately, minimize suicidal behaviors.

In summary, our study contributes to STS research (Zhang, 2005), with the sample taken from professional employees working in urban areas of China. Suicide prevention requires a better understanding of the predictors of suicide. As the pattern of suicide in China is different from that of West, hence, awareness of correlates of suicidal behaviors is essential. Knowledge of these patterns can help in developing a comprehensive strategy for maximizing the likelihood of identifying employees who are engaged in suicidal thinking (Olson et al., 1999). In previous studies, STS has been studied and supported with rural samples from China (Zhang et al., 2009, 2011). To our knowledge, the current research, however, is the first to consider a sample of employees working in urban areas, and hence this study broadens STS applicability to a broader sample set.

Limitations and future directions

Our study is not lacking limitations, and the results should be considered regarding these limits. First, the current study utilized a survey instrument, that is, a questionnaire which relies on self-reporting. The measurement of each respondent’s experience in the search for MIL might not give a complete explanation of what is occurring. Hence, it is suggested that qualitative work should be carried out that should focus a smaller sample representing a diverse age group, which will assist in providing a clearer picture of life meaning and its influence on suicide ideation. As MIL is a fundamental facet of the positive psychology movement (Schulenberg & Melton, 2010), the qualitative approach would encourage a more comprehensive response to queries relevant to this critical issue. Future studies should conduct these analyses using other methods of data collection (observation, interviews, etc.) to validate the generalizability of the results found in this study across multiple perspectives. Additionally, the application of a longitudinal study to follow the effects of all these constructs may give a fuller conception of the underlying mechanism. Therefore, longitudinal analyses could be conducted to replicate the current model to assess causal effects.

Second, the limitations of the current study include the use of primarily convenience sampling along with relatively small sample size. We only assessed employees from organizations working in big cities so these findings may not generalize to populations in rural areas. Replication of these findings should extend to a larger sample across different regions of China and should focus on employees working in rural areas, where the suicide rate is two-fold to three-fold higher than in China’s urban areas (Wang et al., 2008).

Third, although the sample was collected from both males and females randomly, respondents from other nationalities were not included. The possibility exists that the notion of MIL may possess distinct levels of significance within different cultures. Also, the basic understanding and definition of MIL vary across societies (Constantine & Sue, 2006; Steger, Kashdan, Sullivan, & Lorentz, 2008), and no systematic investigation of inter- and intra-cultural similarities and differences in MIL exists so far (Steger et al., 2006). These concerns may impact the findings, which lessens the ability to generalize our results across a broader cultural spectrum. Hence, investigation of the sources of meaning for individuals in a range of cultures would be particularly productive (Bar-Tur, Savaya, & Prager, 2001). Follow-up studies should endeavor to explore the influence of international, national, and organizational cultures, along with different positive leadership behaviors (ethical leadership, servant leadership, etc.) that can probably help to reduce strain in the work environment and boost the employee’s perception of MIL.

Finally, with regard to the relationship between strain and suicide ideation, we did not evaluate other possible significant mediators and moderators which might play a key role in determining the possibility of suicide as a result of strain (Zhang et al., 2013). Hence, to further advance theory, future research studies should examine other plausible mediators and contextual moderators (Frazier et al., 2004) of the relationships between strains and suicide ideation.

Conclusion

Drawing on STS, the current study offers significant contributions to the positive psychology and suicide literature by identifying MIL as a mediator of the relationship among psychological strains and suicide ideation. By collecting and analyzing data from professional employees in six different organizations across China, the study confirms that lower MIL is one of the pathways for promoting suicide ideation. Based on STS and in line with strain theories, the present study results also enrich the suicide literature in a non-Western context, where suicide mostly occurs due to non-psychiatric factors instead of mental disorders. Hence, our findings suggest that organizational strategies must contain informed efforts to both reduce psychological strains and increase MIL.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

The authors thank research collaborators in Beijing, Shaanxi, and Shandong of China and also thank all the participants for their unique contribution to the study.

Article Notes

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Making Sense of Chinese Employees’ Suicidal Ideation: A Psychological Strain—Life Meaning Model

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Literature and theoretical development

Psychological strains and suicide ideation: The STS

MIL as a mediator

Method

Sample and procedure

Measures

Psychological strain

Suicide ideation

Meaning in life

Control variables

Analyses

Results

Discussion and implications

Limitations and future directions

Conclusion

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

Article Notes

References