Prejudice,Integrativeness,and Motivation to Learn a Second Language: A Mediation Analysis

Abstract

The role of prejudice in second-language acquisition has received little attention but may be related to an individual’s motivation to learn another language. For instance, learners who express high Social Dominance Orientation or Right-Wing Authoritarianism, constructs reflective of prejudice and worldviews that endorse hostility towards or fear of outgroup members, may be less motivated to learn a second language. Moreover, increased Social Dominance Orientation and/or Right-Wing Authoritarianism scores may be associated with reduced motivation to learn a second language due to the impact of prejudice on Integrativeness, which is the extent to which a person has an interest in learning a second language and in interacting with members who speak that second language. The current study sought to test these associations with a sample of 110 college participants learning French as a second language in a bilingual institution. Integrativeness was found to fully mediate the relations between Social Dominance Orientation, Right-Wing Authoritarianism, and Motivation to learn a second language. Results suggest the importance of examining the role of prejudice in second-language acquisition.

Keywords

Integrativeness Social Dominance Orientation Right-Wing Authoritarianism second-language motivation socioeducational model prejudice

Introduction

Learning a second language is a highly social process (Rubenfeld et al., 2007). While individual aptitude and the educational context play a role in second-language acquisition, the extent to which a person is open to adapting to a different culture and has a favorable attitude toward the second language is also very important (Gardner, 2010; Iwaniec, 2014; McEown, Noels, & Chaffee, 2014; Okuniewski, 2012). As a result, indicators of prejudice, such as Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) and Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA), may be associated with the extent to which an individual is motivated to learn a second language. Moreover, the relation between prejudice and Motivation to learn a second language may be partially explained by Integrativeness, a construct introduced by Gardner (2010) as part of the socioeducational model that reflects an individual’s positive attitude and interest in the second language and in sharing interactions with members who speak the second language. The current study explored whether SDO and RWA were related to Motivation to learn a second language, and if this relation would be mediated by the construct of Integrativeness.

Two common indices of individual prejudice are SDO and RWA. They reflect mental schemas about the social world that help organize information and influence how individuals respond to their environment, their reactions to various information they may receive, as well as choices they may make (Duckitt, 2006). Both SDO and RWA are moderately correlated (Altemeyer, 2004) and are important, unique indicators of prejudice as they each endorse negative attitudes to different outgroup members (e.g., Pratto, Sidanius, & Levin, 2006; Sibley & Duckitt, 2008). Individuals scoring high on these two measures believe that outgroups may pose a threat to the existing hierarchy, order, and the operation of various social systems such as government agencies, neighborhoods, and the workplace (Duckitt, 2006; Sibley & Duckitt, 2008).

Individuals endorsing SDO prefer inequality among social groups, a strong social hierarchy in order to maintain social order, and tend to view the world as a competitive place (Duckitt, Wagner, du Plessis, & Birum, 2002; Sibley, Wilson, & Duckitt, 2007). SDO is positively correlated with toughmindedness (a lack of compassion, being merciless, unfeeling, and unkind) (Duckitt et al., 2002). It is strongly associated with beliefs that the world is a “competitive jungle” in which individuals should be ruthless in their quest for power and resources, which are reserved only for the strong (Duckitt et al., 2002). SDO is also negatively correlated with Openness and Agreeableness Big Five dimensions (Ho et al., 2015; Nicol & De France, 2016), as well as with international harmony and equality (Heaven, Organ, Supavadeeprasit, & Leeson, 2006).

RWA indicates a preference for strong authority, traditions, and belief in the use of authority-sanctioned aggression, as individuals with high RWA scores tend to view the world as a dangerous place (Duckitt et al., 2002; Sibley et al., 2007) and believe following authority and traditions is an effective way to regulate society. RWA is positively correlated with the belief that the world is a scary and dangerous place due to threats against traditional values and ways of being (Duckitt et al., 2002). It is also positively associated with the values of national strength and order (Heaven et al., 2006), the Big Five dimension of Conscientiousness, and negatively correlated with the Big Five dimension of Openness (Duckitt et al., 2002; Nicol & De France, 2016).

Both SDO and RWA provide boundaries to the type of interactions people will have with individuals who are perceived to be part of their outgroup. These psychological boundaries or rules prescribe how others should be viewed, such as inferior and unequal as per SDO, or as potential threats to the status quo and the existing social order as per RWA (Duckitt, 2006). As a result, SDO and RWA may limit Motivation to learn a second language and interaction with members of the second-language group. Language plays a “crucial psychological role in inter-ethnic behaviour” (Giles & Byrne, 1982, p. 17), is a form of expressing ethnic identity (Giles & Byrne, 1982; Laroche, Pons, & Richard, 2009; Trofimovich & Turuševa, 2015), and reflects important social roles (Noels, 2014). Therefore, individuals scoring high on SDO and/or RWA may also report lower Motivation to learn a second language.

Although it is expected that SDO and/or RWA are negatively related to second-language motivation, this association may be partially explained by Integrativeness. Integrativeness is a construct introduced in Gardner’s (2010) socioeducational model as an important precursor to second-language achievement and consists of three components: (1) integrative orientation (i.e., the extent to which the individual learning the second language wishes to improve interpersonal interactions with the other culture), (2) attitudes toward the individuals who speak the second language (i.e., the extent to which an individual appreciates and favorably views individuals who speak the language they are learning), and (3) an interest in foreign languages (i.e., the degree to which an individual has a positive regard for learning foreign languages in general). Taken together, Integrativeness reflects an individual’s positive attitude and interest in the second language, and in sharing interactions with members who speak the second language, and therefore is an important precursor to Motivation to learn a second language (Csizér & Dörnyei, 2005; Gardner, 2010; MacIntyre & Charos, 1996; Okuniewski, 2012).

Given that Integrativeness reflects a willingness to engage with members of another language, it may be strongly shaped by an individual’s prejudice toward outgroups. While there appears to be a clear conceptual relation between Integrativeness and less prejudice to outgroups, little research (see Clément, 1986; MacIntyre, Dörnyei, Clément, & Noels, 1998) has examined the direct relation of indicators of prejudice on Integrativeness. However, indirect evidence has suggested that Integrativeness may be related to social worldviews and attitudes related to prejudice. First, Lalonde and Gardner (1984) found that a personality construct, which they labeled as Analytic Orientation, was an important precursor to Integrativeness. Analytic Orientation consisted of four personality traits, two of which are of relevance here: (1) breadth of interest and (2) conformity. Breadth of interest is conceptually related with the Big Five Openness dimension which reflects the extent to which a person is curious and open minded and has been shown to be a predictor of prejudice (e.g., Ekehammar & Akrami, 2007). Conformity is related to Authoritarian conformity, which is strongly related with prejudice to outgroup members (e.g., Passini, 2017). According to Lalonde and Gardner’s (1984) research, the extent to which an individual is closed minded and endorses conformity is associated with their reported levels of Integrativeness.

Second, Kraemer (1993) found that sociopolitical attitudes predicted integrative orientation in a sample of high school participants learning Arabic in Israel. Integrative orientation was measured using two types of items. The first type assessed the wish to learn Arabic so that the person can understand the culture and interact with Arabs. The second type of items assessed accommodation, which reflects a person’s desire to be seen as willing to study Arabic and the desire to accommodate linguistically with Arabs by wishing to communicate with them in Arabic. Both of these are conceptually related to Gardner’s (2010) Integrativeness construct. Here, sociopolitical attitudes included measures of social distance (attitudes regarding relationships and contact between Arabs and Jews, a measure of prejudice), Arab civil rights (the extent to which Arab citizens of Israel should experience equal rights socially, in jobs, and in government), and political optimism (the level of optimism for a peaceful integration of Israel into the Middle East). Kraemer found that social political attitudes were significant positive predictors of integrative orientation. Therefore, expressing less prejudice, greater beliefs in equal rights, and a favorable view of integration were important precursors to Integrativeness. These findings provide preliminary support that social worldviews could be related to how open and willing an individual is to learn a second language and adapt to another cultural group.

Current research

Based on these findings, the current study had several objectives. First, we wished to examine the strength of the relation between prejudice, as measured by SDO and RWA, and Motivation to learn a second language. Second, the current study aimed to identify if the association between prejudice and Motivation to learn a second language could be explained by Gardner’s (2010) concept of Integrativeness. We examined this relation in a unique sample, Officer Cadets at the Royal Military College (RMC) of Canada, who work and study in a bilingual (French and English) environment. Canada has an official bilingual policy (Official Languages Act, 1985); learning both English and French is recognized as important for communication with the two historically dominant linguistic groups within the culture. The RMC of Canada operates under this bilingual policy and requires all Cadets to reach a certain level of proficiency in their second language. Roughly 80% of all Cadets at the college declare English as their dominant language. This provides an excellent context to examine the role of prejudice on Integrativeness in a culture that attempts to encourage bilingualism.

Method

Participants and procedure

We chose a sample that operates in a bilingual (English and French) environment, Officer Cadets at the RMC of Canada. This military institution, located in the province of Ontario, is one of two federally funded and run institutions designed to educate individuals who have been accepted into the Canadian Forces as Officer Cadets. The majority of Officer Cadets are enrolled in the Regular Officer Training Plan, and there are approximately 1000 Officer Cadets enrolled at any one time. Typically, 20% of these are self-declared Francophones and 80% are self-declared Anglophones. The majority of Officer Cadets are male (there are roughly 15% women enrolled at the college). RMC is designed to educate future officers of the Canadian Forces. There are numerous academic programs that are offered in Social Sciences, Science, and Engineering. Both military and civilian professors hold academic positions, the majority are civilian professors who hold a PhD. After completing four years of military training, language training, and academics to obtain a Bachelor’s degree, students are expected to achieve a minimal second-language profile in French as French is Canada’s official second language (Official Languages Act, 1985). If they do not have a minimum level of proficiency upon entering the college, they take French lessons 5 hours a week for the four years of their degree (some may obtain extra second-language courses in the summer or during February Reading week). Approximately 800 (400 in 2014 and 400 in 2016) third and fourth-year Anglophone students were sent an e-mail invitation to participate in the study. Of the 126 participants who completed this study, 16 participants were excluded due to not reporting English as their first language. The final sample consisted of 110 participants (80% male, mean age = 20.76, SD = 3.89), with a mean second-language total profile score of 2.07 (SD: 2.49) out of a possible score of 9 on reading comprehension, written expression, and oral interaction, this score indicates that the participants were beginners. Participants were attendees of the RMC of Canada for an average of 2.19 years, SD = 1.07.

Measures

Social Dominance Orientation

The SDO scale (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999) measures attitudes to intergroup relations and group dominance. It consists of 16 items (e.g., “Inferior groups should stay in their place”), half are reverse-scored. A Strongly Disagree (1) to Strongly Agree (7) rating scale was employed. High total scores suggest a greater SDO. The SDO scale showed strong interitem reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = .91).

Right-Wing Authoritarianism

The RWA instrument developed by Passini (2008) yields three indices: (1) Aggression, (2) Submission, and (3) Conventionalism that reflect Altemeyer’s (1988) original conceptualization of RWA. Scores are added across the three dimensions to form a total score. The measure consists of 12 items (e.g., “Our country would be great if we did what the authorities tell us to do”). Participants rated each item on a scale from Strongly Disagree (1) to Strongly Agree (7). Three items are reversed scored. Only the total score was used in this study. Higher total scores indicate greater agreement with authoritarian attitudes. The RWA scale showed good interitem reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = .80).

Integrativeness

Gardner, Tremblay, and Masgoret’s (1997) measure of Integrativeness was intended for use with participants learning French and developed on a Canadian sample. It consists of three scales: Integrative Orientation, Attitudes towards French Canadians, and Interest in Foreign Languages. Integrative Orientation consists of four items (e.g., “Studying French is important because it will allow me to gain good friends more easily among French Canadians.”). Attitudes toward French Canadians consist of 10 items (e.g., “If Canada should lose the French culture of Quebec, it would indeed be a great loss.”), half of which are negatively keyed. Interest in Foreign Language also consists of 10 items (e.g., “I often wish I could read newspapers and magazines in another language.”), five are negatively keyed. All items were measured on a five-point Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree scale. High total scores indicate a strong preference for Integrativeness. The total Integrativeness score was used in this study, which showed strong interitem reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = .91).

Motivation

Motivation was assessed with Gardner et al.’s (1997) measure designed for the use for participants learning French. It consists of three dimensions, each measured with 10 items, half being negatively keyed. The three dimensions are: Attitudes towards learning French (e.g., “I really enjoy learning French.”), Desire to learn French (e.g., “I want to learn French so well that it will become second nature to me.”), and Motivational intensity (e.g., “I keep up to date with French by working on it almost every day.”). A Strongly Disagree (1) to Strongly Agree (5) scale was employed for all of the items. A total score reflects the level of motivation to learn a second language, with high scores reflecting high Motivation. Only the total Motivation score was used in this study, which showed strong interitem reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = .96).

Demographic questionnaire

Several demographic questions were asked such as gender, age, second-language profile, and second-language training experience. On average, participants had taken French immersion classes for 1 year (SD = 3.2) and had taken French classes of any kind for 3.8 years (SD = 3.7). Regarding second-language profile, students are given standardized tests in three domains: reading comprehension, written expression, and oral interaction. Based on the results of those tests, they are given one of three rankings for each: beginner, intermediate, or advanced. The second-language evaluation profile is used by the Government of Canada for all bilingual public service positions. As an example, for written expression, individuals are given a score of A if their ability to write is limited to a few words or simple phrases, B if they can write a few sentences and have an adequate mastery of grammar, and C if they can write well with only a few errors (Government of Canada, 2016). The score given to students is used to determine their placement in language courses and whether additional training in the summer will be required before graduation. We converted the letters to numbers, and a low total score indicates a beginner level. This provides a rough index as to their proficiency. Unfortunately, the three-ranking system employed is insufficiently precise and lacks variability to be employed as a criterion measure of performance. We have found this to be the case in past research and therefore used it solely as an indicator of general profile level to ensure that included participants are, indeed, at a level that would require second-language training.

Results

All variables were assessed for missing values and normality of distributions. No study variables exceeded acceptable values of skewness or kurtosis, and no problematic patterns of missing data were identified. T tests revealed gender differences on SDO, which is commonly found in other samples (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Gender differences were also found for Motivation and Integrativeness variables; gender differences in various aspects of learning a second language have been found in previous research (e.g., MacIntyre, Baker, Clément, & Donovan, 2002), although not always. Nevertheless, given the gender differences found for some of the variables, we conducted separate analyses for men and women. Overall, the patterns were similar for both genders; however, the female-only models were not significant. This is very likely a power issue, as there were only 21 women in the study. As a result, both male and female participants were included in all study analyses. Scale means, standard deviations, and correlations between all study variables can be seen in Table 1.

Table 1.

Correlations, means, standard deviations, and differences between males and females for study variables.

	SDO	RWA	Motivation	Integrativeness
SDO	1.00
RWA	.46**	1.00
Motivation	−.43**	−.23*	1.00
Integrativeness	−.44**	−.29*	.86**	1.00
Study Mean	3.08	3.33	3.45	3.65
SD	1.57	0.93	0.85	0.68
Minimum score	1.00	1.25	1.03	1.59
Maximum score	6.19	5.75	4.87	4.83
Male mean	3.28	3.39	3.33	3.55
Female mean	2.31	3.16	3.85	4.01
Gender difference t	3.68**	1.06	−2.63*	−2.92**

SDO: Social Dominance Orientation; RWA: Right-Wing Authoritarianism.

*p < .05. **p < .01.

To identify the relations of SDO, RWA, Integrativeness, and Motivation, two separate analyses were run. First, an indirect effects analysis using the PROCESS macro (Hayes, 2012) in SPSS was conducted to evaluate whether the effect of SDO on Motivation has an indirect effect through Integrativeness. Results indicated SDO was a significant predictor of Integrativeness, b = −.27, SE = .05, p <.001, and Integrativeness was a significant predictor of Motivation, b = 1.04, SE = .07, p <.001 (see Figure 1). These results support the mediational hypothesis. SDO was no longer a significant predictor of Motivation after controlling for the mediator, Integrativeness, b = −.04, SE = .04, p = .34, consistent with full mediation. Approximately 75% of the variance in Motivation was accounted for by the predictors (R² = .75). The indirect effect was tested using a bootstrap estimation approach with 5000 samples. These results indicated that the indirect coefficient was significant, b = −.28, SE = .06, 95% CI = −.39, −.15. A one-point increase in SDO scores was associated with an approximate .38-point decrease in Motivation scores as mediated by Integrativeness.

Figure 1.

Indirect effects test of SDO onto Motivation to learn a second language. ***p<.001. SDO: Social Dominance Orientation.

A second indirect effects analysis was conducted to evaluate if the effect of RWA on Motivation has an indirect effect through Integrativeness. Results indicated that RWA was a significant predictor of Integrativeness, b = −.22, SE = .07, p = .002, and Integrativeness was a significant predictor of Motivation, b = 1.08, SE = .06, p <.001 (see Figure 2). These results support the mediational hypothesis. RWA was no longer a significant predictor of Motivation after controlling for the mediator, Integrativeness, b = .02, SE = .05, p = .61, consistent with full mediation. Approximately 75% of the variance in Motivation was accounted by the predictors (R² = .75). The indirect effect was tested using a bootstrap estimation approach with 5000 samples. These results indicated that the indirect coefficient was significant, b = −.23, SE = .09, 95% CI = −.40, −.06. A one-point increase in RWA scores was associated with an approximately .26-point decrease in Motivation scores as mediated by Integrativeness.

Figure 2.

Indirect effects test of RWA onto Motivation to learn a second language. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p<.001. RWA: Right-Wing Authoritarianism.

Discussion

Learning a second language can be difficult, but it can become much more difficult if the individual holds prejudiced beliefs and attitudes that are related with attitudes to a cultural group and interest in other languages. We found that both prejudice measures, SDO (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999) and RWA (Passini, 2008), were significantly negatively associated with Motivation to learn a second language. However, Integrativeness completely mediated the relation between prejudice and Motivation to learn a second language. Furthermore, the findings provide support for previous research that found a relation between Integrativeness (and constructs similar to Integrativeness) and Motivation (e.g., Ghonsooly, Khajavy, & Asadpour, 2012; Kormos & Csizér, 2008; Yashima, Zenuk-Nishide, & Shimizu, 2004) and evidence of the generalizability of this relation to a professional military context where learning a second language is a requirement.

Second-language learning is believed to be an important developmental experience to gain awareness and understanding of other cultures (Rubenfeld et al., 2007) and may improve attitudes toward outgroups (e.g., Wright & Tropp, 2005). It means accepting to change personally and socially (e.g., Wright & Tropp, 2005) as it suggests engaging in a new type of intergroup behavior (Giles & Byrne, 1982). Integrativeness plays a special role in bilingual and multicultural environments, encouraging communication and contact with individuals who are part of that second cultural and linguistic group (Rubenfeld et al., 2007). This research indicates that both SDO and RWA may be important precursors in the socioeducational model and may assist in our development of a better understanding of the role of Integrativeness in Motivation to learn a second language. Those scoring high on SDO view outgroup members as inferior and unequal, thereby setting boundaries for interacting with those outgroup members because they do not fit in their social stratum. Those scoring high on RWA view outgroup members as upsetting tradition and the extant establishment, creating an unwillingness to change the existing ways of being. Viewing the world as a competitive place (SDO) and fearing that the world is a dangerous place (RWA) may be related to the extent to which an individual may wish to adopt the language of another culture. In a bilingual education and work environment, it is important for individuals to develop intercultural competence, acceptance, and tolerance in order to be able to interpret, understand, communicate, and negotiate important work-related dynamics.

Knowing that SDO and RWA are negatively associated with Integrativeness provides insight into ways in which Motivation to learn a second language could be increased. This tells us that efforts to reduce prejudice among Individuals may be a first step in helping to increase cultural integrativeness. Research examining the factors that influence SDO and RWA is extensive and, therefore, these factors may be applied to a second-language learning context. For instance, Dhont, Van Hiel, and Hewstone (2014) found that experiences with intergroup contact significantly reduced individuals’ SDO scores. Results of a meta-analysis by Pettigrew and Tropp (2006) suggested that intergroup contact can reduce prejudice toward the specific group with whom individuals interacted, and Clément (1980) suggested that contact may be an important mediator in second-language learning motivation. Therefore, engaging in positive experiences with members of the second-language group may also be significantly associated with second-language learning. Finding ways to encourage more interaction between two linguistic groups may actually decrease prejudice, in turn increasing Integrativeness.

Finally, prejudice may play an important role with other important individual language constructs, such as willingness to communicate (MacIntyre, Baker, Clément, & Conrod, 2001). Scoring high on SDO or RWA may play an inhibitory role in a person’s willingness to communicate in a second language, particularly with outgroup members.

There were several limitations to this research. The generalizability of our findings may be limited as our study included a large proportion of men living in a military bilingual institution where learning French as a second language is obligatory. However, the Integrativeness–Motivation relation found here mirrors those of other studies, supporting the generalizability of these results. For instance, Gardner et al. (1997) found, in a sample of 102 university participants (82 females) taking an introductory French class, that Integrativeness was a precursor to Motivation. Ghonsooly et al. (2012) found that International Posture was a direct predictor of Motivation to learn English in a sample of Iranian undergraduate students taking a general English course. International Posture is a construct that shares elements of Integrativeness (see Platsidou, Kantaridou, and Papadopoulou, 2017) but considers attitudes regarding learning English as an international language; it assesses interest in foreign affairs and international activities, a willingness to have intercultural friendships, an approach or avoidance tendency to outgroup members, and intercultural friendship orientation. Kormos and Csizér (2008) found International Posture (using a four-item scale assessing attitudes placed on learning English as an international language) predicted Motivation to learn English in three different samples (secondary students, university students, and adults) in Hungary. Finally, Yashima et al. (2004) found comparable results in a Japanese sample of high school students. Although our sample was unique, a professional military context where second-language learning is a requirement, we believe that the comparable Integrativeness–Motivation results with other samples suggest that our overall findings may not be unique to our sample. It was also important to determine that the Integrativeness–L2 Motivation relation exists in this unique context. Our findings confirm the stability and strength of this relation rather than open questions and concerns that Integrativeness may not operate similarly in such a different cultural and learning environment.

Although Gardner’s (2010) model fits well in the Canadian context where French is taught as a second language and because it was developed in Canada under this cultural experience, the findings may not generalize to other cultures or other languages. Gardner’s (2010) Integrativeness construct also may best be suited to describe individuals learning a second language in order to communicate with a specific cultural group; researchers have suggested that its operationalization is not well suited for samples where students wish to learn a second language, such as English, to be able to communicate in an international environment instead of with a particular cultural group (Kormos & Csizér, 2008; Platsidou et al., 2017). Future research can examine the role of SDO and RWA in learning English as a foreign language rather than for communicating with a specific cultural group.

The results of the current study suggest that Integrativeness may be related to people’s schemas regarding how the world should be run and organized. Broad implications may include poorer interpersonal work experiences in a bilingual environment. Our findings suggest that more research integrating the prejudice domain and second-language learning domain may provide insight into some of the underlying mechanisms involved in the process of second-language acquisition. For instance, it would be useful to explore the role of other important constructs studied in the prejudice domain such as empathy, ethnocultural empathic concern and awareness, and intergroup anxiety in facilitating or inhibiting an individual’s desire to learn a second language.

Footnotes

Article Notes

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