Father Presence and Adolescents’ Resilience: The Mediating Role of Failure Learning

Abstract

In this study, we aimed to investigate the association between father presence and the resilience of adolescents, and whether failure learning mediates this association. Specifically, we obtained in-depth details on the relation between father presence and adolescents’ resilience by examining the mediating effects of four subfactors of failure learning: failure cognition, reflection and analysis, experience transformation, and prudent attempt. For this purpose, we used the questionnaire to access Chinese middle school students’ father presence, resilience, and failure learning. In total, six hundred and twenty-six valid questionnaires were collected. The results were as follows: (1) there was a significant positive correlation between father presence, failure learning, and resilience; (2) failure learning played a mediating role between father presence and adolescents’ resilience; (3) the mediating effect of experience transformation and prudent attempt (two subfactors of failure learning) between father presence and adolescents’ resilience was significant, while the mediating effect of failure cognition and reflective analysis (the other two subfactors of failure learning) was insignificant.

Keywords

Father presence resilience failure learning mediating effect

Introduction

Adolescence is a special period of life growth and development. Chinese adolescents in this critical stage are often faced with pressure and setbacks from life and study, such as academic pressure, role confusion, and challenging failures (Tong, 2020). A Chinese survey on 17 provinces (1989–2016) showed that the incidence of psychological problems of school-age individuals had reached 15.6% (Ding et al., 2017). High-risk adolescents may have homelessness, medicine abuse, suicide, and self-injuring behaviors (Bao et al., 2017). Therefore, improving teenagers’ coping ability has become an urgent problem.

Weick et al. (1989) proposed the strength perspective. It indicated that continuous growth occurs through the recognition and development of strengths. The strength perspective played an inspiring role in how individuals’ strength was obtained by internal and external resources (Tian, 2007). If individuals can make use of personal and social resources by simulating endogenous strengths, they will deal with difficulties and setbacks successfully (Saleebey, 1992). Tugade et al. (2004) suggested that resilience is the core of the strength. So, this paper is seeking to explore the key factor: resilience.

Theory background

Resilience is defined as ‘the role of mental processes and behavior in promoting personal assets and protecting an individual from the potential negative effect of stressors’ (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013). It includes five dimensions: goal concentration, emotional control, positive cognition, family support, and interpersonal assistance (Hu & Gan, 2008). Relevant researches show that resilience comes from both the internal and external aspects of the individual (Richardson, 2002). Endogenous resilience is mainly positive psychological resources and competitive abilities such as failure learning, while external resilience includes positive family support and social support such as father presence (Bernard, 1997; McLaughlin & Talbert, 1993). When an individual is faced with stress and difficulties, the internal and external factors of resilience both protect the individual’s mental health and achieve a dynamic psychological balance (Richardson, 2002).

Parent-child interaction has a subtle influence on adolescents (Yang & Dong, 2005). Just like the father in the Indian movie “Dangal”. As an ever wrestler champion, the father in Dangal shouldered the raising responsibility by training his two daughters’ wrestling. Like Chinese fathers, the Indian father inspired his daughters’ wrestling talents by showing excellent model and special concern. Despite various laughing, the two daughters learned from numerous failures with the father’s guidance. Finally, they won the gold medal. Chinese fathers bear the same economic responsibility and rear their children. Eastern fathers usually put their love in action rather than in words. In fact, that is father presence. Father presence is defined as ‘Father involves in his child in cognition, emotion, and behavior’ (Gao et al., 2020). It includes material insurance, emotional communication, participation in the guidance, future plan, teaching experience, model demonstration, and overall intentions (Krampe & Newton, 2006).

Relevant studies have shown that high-quality father presence contributes to a variety of positive developmental outcomes (Pruett et al., 2017), such as promoting healthy psychological growth (Li et al., 2007) and achieving psychological stability (Crouter & Head, 2002). For adolescents, human capital and social capital in family resources are important protective factors of their resilience, which can effectively reduce the negative impact of risk (Luo et al., 2019). However, a low-quality father presence will lead to inadaptability and a lack of resilience (Li & Tian, 2018). Yoon et al. (2018) argued that a bad relationship between father and child was an important reason for high-risk adolescents’ ill behavior. In conclusion, we might infer that as the external resource, father presence could influence adolescents’ resilience directly.

How does father presence affect adolescents’ resilience? According to Krampe and Newton (2006), participation promotes the child’s coordination with the father, getting close to and identifying with him, understanding him, accepting the father’s influence gradually, and internalizing into one’s own behavior. When adolescents encounter failures, the attending and participation of fathers support them indirectly and help to develop their resilience through exploring the causes of failure and reconstructing behavior mode (Shepherd et al., 2014). The strength rests on that individual and social resources can be developed and sustained (Weick et al., 1989).

Social resource is defined as the spiritual and material elements provided by society, which are of great significance to individual development (Yara et al., 2018). It can provide individuals with physiological and psychological benefits, which in turn can affect individuals’ development positively (Theresa et al., 2014). Most spiritual social resources can be obtained by learning, progressively, they will become an individual’s strength (Chen & Ning, 2010). Research indicated failure is a kind of personal valuable learning resource (Politis, 2005). As the endogenous strength, failure learning is defined as individuals learning from failure experience. The strength rests on individuals that feedback to thoughts and behaviors through reflection, so as to reduce the probability of failure in the future (Holger et al., 2011). Failure cognition, reflective analysis, experience transformation, and prudent attempt are its four dimensions (Xue & Wei, 2019). Compared with general learning theory, the essence of failure learning is to change the previous acting mode and set up a new acting mode (Yu & Cai, 2013). Previous research has shown that individuals with more learning orientation would obtain experience from failure. They might show more resilience in the face of difficulties (Yu et al., 2004). During this learning process, the father’s active involvement encourages adolescents to take action to deal with failures, namely, promoting resilience indirectly (Opondo et al., 2016). Therefore, a high-quality father presence would have a positive impact on adolescents’ resilience by internal strengths of failure learning.

Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study was to determine, using the questionnaire to access Chinese middle school students’ father presence, resilience, and failure learning, the influence of father presence on adolescents’ resilience and to confirm the mediating effect of failure learning on this relationship. More specifically, we examined whether the effect of father presence on adolescents’ resilience is mediated by the subfactors of failure learning in order to provide more in-depth information on the relationship between these variables. We expected that our findings would contribute to increasing interest in improving adolescents’ resilience. The following research questions were addressed in the study:

Does father presence influence adolescents’ resilience and failure learning?

Does father presence influence adolescents’ resilience via the mediating effect of failure learning?

Based on the previous research, we hypothesized that father presence has a direct effect on adolescents’ resilience and that all four subfactors of failure learning serve as mediators of this relationship. For the purpose of the study, we planned to conduct a questionnaire survey on father presence, failure learning, and resilience among adolescents aged 12 to 18.

Hypotheses

Our hypotheses were as follows:

H1: Father presence will be positively related to adolescents’ resilience.

H2: Father presence will be positively related to failure learning.

H3: Failure learning will mediate the relationship between father presence and adolescents’ resilience.

To verify H1 and H2, we will conduct a correlation analysis among father presence, failure learning and adolescents’ resilience. To test H3, we will use mediating effect analysis to confirm the mediating role of failure learning between father presence and adolescents’ resilience.

Method

Participants and procedure

The participants were students from 4 middle schools in Jiangsu Province and Shanxi Province of China. We used the cluster sampling method to select some classes from these four schools for investigation. Middle school students provided information about their perceptions of father presence, failure learning, and resilience. Assurance of confidentiality and anonymity was included in the questionnaire.

A total of 720 questionnaires were distributed, after eliminating invalid ones (such as regular answers and answers’ missing rate over 50%), 626 survey questionnaires were returned, with response rates of 86.9%. 58.5% were junior high school students, and 41.5% were senior high school students. The average age of students was 14.89 years (SD = 2.16), in the age range of 12 to 18. In the sample, 44.1% were male, 55.9 were female; 65.2% were urban students, 34.8% were rural students.

Measures

Three scales were used to measure father presence, adolescents’ resilience, and failure learning. Responses were rated on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Chinese Father Presence Scale

Father presence was measured using the scale developed by Xue and Wei (2019). The scale consisted of the following 7 dimensions: material insurance (α = 0.825), emotional communication (α = 0.908), participation in the guidance (α = 0.838), future plan (α = 0.881), teaching experience (α = 0.923), model demonstration (α = 0.847), and overall intentions (α = 0.943). The scale contained 38 items (e.g., “When something goes wrong, I can feel father’s encouragement to me”) . The reliability of this scale (Cronbach's α) was 0.862.

Adolescents’ Resilience Scale

Adolescents’ resilience was assessed by using the scale developed by Hu and Gan (2008). The scale consisted of 27 items, including 5 dimensions: goal concentration (α = 0.902), emotional control (α = 0.866), positive cognition (α = 0.823), family support (α = 0.786), and interpersonal assistance (α = 0.894). Sample items included: “I like the course to be able to stimulate the curiosity, even if it may be difficult to learn.” Cronbach's α for this scale was 0.880.

Failure Learning Scale

Adolescents’ failure learning was assessed by using the scale developed by Xue and Wei (2019). The scale included 25 items and was consisted of 4 dimensions: failure cognition (α = 0.870), reflective analysis (α = 0.834), experience transformation (α = 0.878), and prudent attempt (α = 0.923). Sample items included: “After failure, I will reflect on whether the strategy I have taken before is correct.” Cronbach's α was 0.915.

Data analysis

In this study, SPSS version 21.0 was used for descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and regression analysis. AMOS version 17.0 was used to conduct a mediating effect.

Common method variance

According to index data from Williams and McGonagle (2016), the study examined common method variance bias with one single-factor test. The result showed that there was 10% of the total variance, less than the 25% indicating that there was no covariance between these variables.

Results

Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis

Means, standard deviations, and correlations among studied variables were reported in Table 1.

Table 1.

Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations among study variables (N = 626).

Variables	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6
1.Gender	1.52	0.28	1
2.Age	14.89	2.16	0.35	1
3.Family Location	1.07	0.19	0.02	.051	1
4.Father presence	145.39	33.23	0.06	−0.11*	−0.01	1
5.Failure learning	98.03	16.19	0.10	0.24*	0.14	0.31***	1
6.Adolescents’ resilience	96.27	16.36	0.29*	0.13	0.05	0.43**	0.54***	1

Note. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

All correlations between father presence, failure learning, and adolescents’ resilience were significant, hypothesis 1 and hypothesis 2 were supported. Specifically, father presence was positively related to failure learning and adolescents’ resilience. Higher father presence and stronger failure learning ability were associated with the higher level of adolescents’ resilience.

Regression analysis

We conducted regression to investigate if father presence and failure learning would predict adolescents’ resilience.

As Table 2 shows, father presence and failure learning could significantly predict adolescents’ resilience. The explanation of father presence was 18.11% (β = 0.130, t = 4.59**), and failure learning was 13.22% (β = 0.340, t = 11.40***).

Table 2.

Regression analysis for variables predicting adolescents’ resilience (N = 626).

Dependent variable	Independent variable	R²	△R²	SE	β	t	F
Resilience	Age	0.01	0.01	0.01	0.02	0.89	4.10
	Gender	0.01	0.01	0.01	−0.03	1.02	3.71
	Father presence	0.18	0.18	0.02	0.13	4.59**	51.07
	Failure learning	0.31	0.13	0.03	0.34	11.40***	111.34

Note. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

Mediating effect analysis

Our paper used Mplus version7.0 software for mediating analysis. We took father presence as an independent variable, adolescents’ resilience as a dependent variable, and failure learning as an intermediary variable.

As shown in Table 3, χ²/df = 2.856, RMSEA = 0.058, CFI = 0.942, TLI = 0.928, SRMR = 0.036, the data showed that failure learning played a mediating role between father presence and resilience. The mediating effect was 0.279 (Figure 1). Hypothesis 3 was supported.

Table 3.

Structural equation fitting index of father presence, failure learning, and resilience.

χ²/df	RMSEA	CFI	TLI	SRMR
2.856	0.058	0.942	0.928	0.036

Figure 1.

Mediating model of failure learning between father presence and resilience.

In order to explore the effect of different dimensions of failure learning on the relationship between father presence and adolescents’ resilience, the study took the four dimensions of failure learning as mediating variables and conducted structural equation model analysis (Figure 2). According to Wu (2009), we conducted regression by the stepwise method. Four subfactors stepped into the model at the same time. The stepwise method is a competition model. Figure 2 showed that experience transformation and prudent attempt (two subfactors of failure learning) were retained in the model. Failure cognition and reflective analysis (the other two subfactors of failure learning) were insignificant and were out of the model.

Figure 2.

Mediating model of different dimensions of failure learning.

The fitting index of the model was obtained as follows: χ²/df = 4.891, RMSEA= 0.075, CFI = 0.927, TLI = 0.911, SRMR = 0.060. Experience transformation and prudent attempt played a mediating role between father presence and adolescents’ resilience (Figure 2). As Table 4 shows, the prudent attempt was more significant than experience transformation.

Table 4.

Mediating effect of failure learning between father presence and resilience.

Mediating path	95% Confidence interval			Indirect effect value	Relative mediating effect
Mediating path	Boot CI upper limit	Boot CI lower limit		Indirect effect value	Relative mediating effect
Father presence- failure learning- resilience	0.053		0.104	0.279	73.04%
Father presence- experience transformation- resilience	0.029		0.068	0.083	25.94%
Father presence- prudent attempt- resilience	0.048		0.091	0.168	41.48%

Discussion

We investigated the relationship among Chinese father presence, failure learning, and adolescents’ resilience. And the paper found the direct and indirect paths.

The direct path from father presence to adolescents’ resilience

Our first contribution is that external resources such as father presence could promote the development of failure learning as internal strength. Failure learning plays a key supporting role in this study.

According to the theory of strength, individuals could obtain resilience through external and internal factors (Tian, 2007). In our study, father presence became the external influence factor of adolescents’ resilience, and failure learning was the internal strength. Father presence and failure learning both had a positive predictive effect on adolescents’ resilience through the external and internal paths (see Figure 1).

Rusby et al. (2018) explained that a high level of father presence is more conducive to the cultivation of adolescents’ resilience directly. High-quality father presence represents a transmission of rich life experience so that adolescents can obtain much knowledge, experience, and spiritual resources from their fathers in addition to material security to cope with failures better and cultivate their resilience indirectly (Niobe & Gillman, 2000; Thomas et al., 2008).

The indirect path with failure learning’s two dimensions as mediators

Another contribution is that we have proved which kind of internal resource affected resilience and how it worked (see Figure 2 and Table 4). Our research explored the path of father presence on adolescents’ resilience. As the results showed, father presence indirectly affects resilience through two dimensions of experience transformation and prudent attempt with this adolescent sample.

Experience transformation and prudent attempt both supported the development of resilience. Chen et al. (2015) considered that father activated adolescents’ internal coping ability by providing with their new experience or stimuli and the coping ability also supplied adolescents with new experience or stimuli in turn. After experiencing support, adolescents will take action and attempt again prudently until they succeed (Mendenhall & Kim, 2019). The strength perspective also requires the transformation and actual use of one’s resources and potential to deal with the current situation (Jiang et al., 2020).

As an external strength, father presence plays a powerful role in arousing. When adolescents face failures, the attending and participation of fathers support them indirectly and help to develop their resilience through exploring the causes of failure and reconstructing their behavior mode (Krampe & Newton, 2006; Shepherd et al., 2014). So, father presence also directly arouses internal strength such as failure learning (Krampe, 2009) and self-esteem (Harris, 2002) and indirectly leads to adolescents’ resilience through the above two factors of failure learning.

When it comes to setbacks, fathers are always more concerned with action than words. They will promote their own child’s experience transformation and push them to try again and again. That is just the image of the father in the Indian film “Dangal”.

Limitations and future research directions

A few limitations should be mentioned in the interpretation of these findings, which shed light on future research directions as well.

On the one hand, this study focused on the influence of Chinese fathers on adolescents’ resilience in eastern culture. However, there was no comparison between eastern and western fathers. Future research could expand the various fathers from different cultures or include fathers from different cultures. Whether there are differences between eastern and western fathers’ ways of expressing love and whether they have the same effect on adolescents’ resilience are still worthy of further study.

On the other hand, this research did not explore the influence of mothers on adolescents’ resilience. Mothers can also provide material and psychological support for adolescents, but whether the role of mother is different from that of father might be explored. Based on this, future research could study the role differences between father and mother in the family, and whether father and mother have different effects on children’s promotion of adolescents’ resilience. Furthermore, if there are differences, what kind of strengths do the father and mother provide for their children? Are there other internal strengths that play the mediating role such as positive personality or emotion? These questions are still worth discussing in future research.

Conclusion

The results showed that father presence as an external influence factor could affect adolescents’ resilience and failure learning. High-quality father presence is conducive to adolescents’ psychological development, and the family role of the father is very important to provide external support for adolescents (Pu et al., 2011).

The paper did also provide support for the mediating effect of failure learning in the relationship between Chinese father presence and adolescents’ resilience. It underscored the role of failure learning to promote adolescents’ resilience when encountering setbacks. Failure could serve as a learning tool, which crafts the experience and pushes individuals to try again and again (Andrew et al., 2021). Failure learning could be internalized into individual internal resources to support adolescents’ experience transformation and prudent attempt until success (Fouché, 2013; Trenshaw et al., 2014).

Footnotes

Author Biographies

Yue Yu is a Postgraduate Student in the College of Tianjiabing Education, Jiangnan University, China.

Xueyan Wei is a Professor at College of Tianjiabing Education, Jiangnan University and a Visiting scholar at Thunderbird School of Global Management (2012.11-2013.12).

Robert D Hisrich is a Garvin Professor at The College of Business Administration office of the Dean and an Associate Dean at the Graduate and International Programs, Kent State University.

Linfang Xue is a Postgraduate Student at the College of Tianjiabing Education, Jiangnan University, China.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed the receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/orpublication of this article: This research was funded by the Foundation of Jiangsu Educational Plan Program for the 13th fiveyear plan (B-b20200145) and supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for Central Universities (JUSRP1906ZD) and Kent State University.

ORCID iD

Xueyan Wei

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