Neither Fish nor Fowl: the Contested Identity of Teachers of English in an EFL Context

Identity as a Conceptual Tool

This study frames this conception of identity by employing a series of theoretical conceptual underpinnings (Barkhuizen, 2017) that give life to how teachers develop themselves as foreign language teachers.

Norton (2000) defines identity as ’how a person understands his or her relationship to the world, how that relationship is structured across time and space, and how a person understands possibilities for the future’ (Norton, 2000: 5). This means that identity is inherently dynamic, contextual and in relation to others. Thus, identity can be viewed as ‘a process of continual, emerging and becoming’ (Miller, 2009: 173), in which individuals construct who they are as they engage in different social activities. Furthermore, identity can be conceived as reflecting the ‘social, historical and political context of an individual’s lived experiences’ (Hall, 2002: 31). It therefore cannot be considered a sole identity, but instead identities, and these are related to different traditional demographic categories, such as ethnicity, race, nationality, migration, gender, social class and language.

Therefore, teacher identity as a conceptual tool can be defined as ‘how teachers define themselves in relation to their professional tasks and particularly in relation to educational and teaching relationships’ (Ávalos, 2010: 3). In this sense, teacher’s identity can be analysed most effectively through three primary lenses: teachers’ motivation and commitment, levels of teachers’ self-efficacy and work demands and satisfaction. Ávalos’ study (2010) demonstrated that teachers embody an identity in which a personal understanding of their role and professional tasks is conflicted with an external characterization found in policies, reforms, public messages and stakeholder perceptions.

Thus, being a teacher is not just a matter of being seen as a teacher by oneself and by others; it is also a matter of negotiating an identity that is socially legitimized (Beijaard et al., 2004). In the case of foreign language teachers, the community is extended beyond the borders of the school.

English Language Teacher Identity

A seminal study on L2 teachers’ identity by Pavlenko (2003) reported on the imagined communities of pre-service and in-service teachers through an analysis of their linguistic autobiographies. The study’s participants were from different parts of the world and were international MA TESOL students. The results of this study suggested that teachers claimed simultaneous membership of the native teachers’ community, non-native teachers’ community and multilingual/L2 users’ community. The relevance of this study lies in the open discussion of the deficit view that some language teachers developed of themselves as a result of the dominating view of ‘native speakerism’ as a standard to be achieved by L2 teachers.

Along the same lines, a study by Beckett and Stiefvater (2009) suggested there is a tendency for non-native English-speaking teachers of English to see themselves as not able to teach colloquial English, primarily as they perceived they did not have an advanced sociolinguistic competence. This confirms the issue of proficiency in the English language as one of the key characteristics of an effective language teacher. Similarly, Lee’s (2010) study illustrated how proficiency in the English language was considered the most important characteristic of a ‘good teacher’ of English in Japan. The outcomes of this study suggested that language proficiency influences professional image and undermines teachers’ confidence. Another study by Wolff and Costa (2017) however, suggests that teachers’ insecurity – associated with ‘non-nativeness’ – can be addressed if efforts are made by teacher educators and researchers to help non-native teachers develop a sense of agency and to engage in professional reflexivity.

In South America, there have been few investigations of how English language teachers develop their identity. However, a study conducted by Mora, Trejo and Roux (2014) provided some useful insights. The study examined the interplay between professional development, identity and agency, and the impact that having an English language teaching certificate had on these aspects. Mora, Trejo and Roux (2014)drew on the cases of two English teachers in Mexico who undertook a professional development programme. The study revealed that teachers, after having successfully completed their English language teaching certificate, reported feeling more confident and encouraged about continuing to further studies. In the same vein, Barahona, 2015 reported on a group of English pre-service teachers constructing their identities during their practicum in a Chilean teacher education programme. The study demonstrated that most of the pre-service teachers felt their identities as language teachers were conflicted and that their level of language proficiency was an essential element in terms of them being effective teachers. This has been further confirmed by Archanjo, Barahona and Finardi (2019) which examined the identity of foreign language pre-service teachers in Brazil and Chile. Results suggested that FL pre-service teacher identity is shaped by notions of legitimization of the teacher’s role and language proficiency.

Two other recent studies related to the identity of Chilean teachers of English in Chile have considered the effect of accountability frameworks. Lizasoain’s study (2018) on the construction of knowledge in English language teaching in Chile found that in-service teachers self-reported that they had achieved high levels of language proficiency (B2-C1). However, this result did not accord with the official Ministerial data on such levels of language proficiency, which reported that only a third of in-service teachers met the levels reported. Yet, such teachers’ self-reports of disproportionately high levels of proficiency in English can be explained as an aspiration to meet the standards, and thereby fulfil social expectations. Another interesting outcome of this study related to the reasons that teachers identified as their motives to teach English. The main motives reported were to provide students with a tool to get better jobs and to help students get closer to other cultures. Both of these motives are explicitly reflected in the national curriculum for teaching English in Chile, as well as in the required standards for graduates.

Salinas (2017) investigated the impact of a range of macro and micro contextual factors on the construction of teacher identity in a group of Chilean English teachers. The results of this study suggested that teachers value the affective relationship with different school members; specifically, the student-teacher bond and work climate. From a cognitive dimension, the main characteristics influencing their teacher identity include the need for professional development and the sense of either commitment or detachment in relation to their working conditions and school demands. The specific demands facing teachers in this study were related to the implementation of the national curriculum, multiple administrative tasks, the accomplishment of the standardized national evaluation in English (Sistema de Medición de Calidad de la Educación [SIMCE]), teacher assessment, and Ministry of Education supervision. In addition, Salinas (2017) argued that macro contextual factors had a negative impact on teachers’ identity and agency, particularly on teachers working in the public-school system. These teachers claimed the need for in-service training to cope with the changes and demands derived from the educational reform, especially in the teaching of English as a foreign language.

Therefore, it can be argued that in examining language teacher identity there are five issues that play a key role: English language proficiency; motives to teach English; understanding and degree of commitment towards ELT; self-efficacy to teach English and social value and recognition. Thus, language teacher identity performs a powerful function in shaping the nature of pedagogical practices. However, what is less clear is the nature of this relationship between identity and enacted practices. This connection is ever more critical given the complexities of language teaching practices that are confronting ever greater social and educational challenges.

Teacher Accountability

A new law has recently been passed in Chile which regulates teaching careers (Law decree 20.903). This law includes regulations for initial teacher education programmes (including the compulsory accreditation of English teacher education programmes), standards and national standardized tests for recent graduates and a compulsory evaluation scheme for in-service teachers. In the case of English teachers, graduates need to demonstrate different types of knowledge and skills including pedagogical content knowledge, as well as an advanced level of English (C1 from the CEFR). In addition, in-service teachers working in the public system need to be evaluated every four years through a set of instruments such as tests, a video of lessons, and a teaching portfolio (lesson plans, assessment tasks, reflection pieces). Salaries are determined by the results of these evaluations.

Working Conditions

Historically, graduate teachers of English in Chile have tended to work in education at three different levels: primary and/or secondary level (private and public schools), tertiary education, or in vocational education. However, as the demands for qualified teachers at schools have increased and the new law (which aimss to improve teachers’ working conditions at public schools), are in place, it appears that a large number of new graduate teachers of English are working in the school system (mifuturo.cl).

English teachers working in the Chilean school system typically teach at least 30 hours per week if they are employed full time (i.e. 44 hours per week). They may have class sizes as large as 45, especially in urban low socio-economic sectors, and compared to other professionals with similar training backgrounds, teachers can earn 40% less (Valenzuela, 2010 cited in Ávalos, 2010). Teachers in private schools earn higher salaries, have smaller classes and less teaching time than their counterparts in public subsidized and municipal schools (Ávalos, 2010).

The Questionnaire

The questionnaire was adapted from a previous instrument designed by Ávalos (2010). This instrument was assessed as most suitable as it offered a valid means of investigating and analysing visible features of teacher identity. Moreover, the questionnaire offered a useful explanatory framework with which to develop a more complex understanding of English language teacher identity. It comprised four distinct sections with closed and open-ended questions. The first section included demographic questions, details of teaching experience and current workloads. The second section investigated reasons why teachers chose the teaching profession, their levels of motivation, and factors that encouraged them to continue in the profession. The third section included a series of questions about the impact of their teacher education (both initial and continuing professional development instances) and of their experiences against a range of teaching practices (such as managing the classroom and using the target language in the classroom). The final section of the questionnaire included scales referring to the current status of the profession and the degree of respect afforded by different stakeholders. This section also included open-ended questions about the factors that contribute to their level of satisfaction and the extent of recognition that teachers of English receive in their jobs as teachers of English.

Data Analysis

The responses to the questionnaire were analysed quantitatively and qualitatively. The teachers’ responses to close-ended questions were analysed using descriptive statistics centred on frequency, percentages and correlations. Open-ended questions were analysed through open coding using the software Atlas ti. Following this, the analysis was further developed using thematically developed categories and subcategories (Saldaña, 2009) guided by key concepts in the literature of language teacher identity. Thus, a range of concept-led categories were developed, and the data reported below were based on the following categories: motivation and commitment; self-efficacy; effects of teachers’ initial training and professional development; and satisfaction and recognition.

Motivation and Commitment

The questionnaire asked teachers about their level of motivation to be English teachers at two points of their careers. Their responses provided a contrast between teacher levels of motivation when they started their professional careers, and their current level of motivation. However, in both instances a high level of motivation was the predominant response, with a 37% at the initial phase and a 49% at the moment of carrying out the survey. Most of the teachers declared that their current level of motivation was very high.

Teachers were also asked to rate how important the factors (detailed in Table 2) motivated them to enter the English teaching profession, and if these factors were still relevant in motivating them to continue in the teaching labour force.

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Table 2.

Key Motives to Enter and Stay in the Teaching Profession.

Motives	Very Important		Fairly Important		Less Important		Not Important
	Initial	Current	Initial	Current	Initial	Current	Initial	Current
Ability to teach	54%	86%	32%	12%	11%	1%	4%	1%
Job stability	35%	62%	40%	27%	17%	7%	8%	4%
Ability to learn English	74%	72%	21%	21%	4%	5%	1%	1%
Interest in English	87%	84%	12%	13%	1%	3%	0%	0%
Interest in knowing other cultures	42%	74%	37%	18%	13%	6%	7%	2%
Call for teaching	46%	77%	35%	18%	12%	3%	6%	2%
Meet personal goals	60%	70%	26%	22%	10%	6%	4%	3%
Salary	8%	37%	46%	42%	28%	14%	18%	7%
Professional status	22%	33%	42%	40%	23%	16%	14%	11%
Contribute to society	69%	80%	20%	14%	7%	3%	3%	2%

As illustrated in Table 2, the motives to enter the English teaching profession with the highest preferences were teachers’ interest in the English language and their ability to learn English. However, to stay in the profession, the motives with highest preferences were to contribute to society, ability to teach and working stability.

In comparing teachers’ motives for entering and continuing the profession, the data suggested that teachers considered their ability to teach as a key factor to stay in the profession. Along with this, teachers also reported that contributing to society was equally fundamental to motivating them to continue in their job as teachers (but not necessarily their interest in the English language). This is also supported by the initial call for teaching which became more relevant as a factor to continue in the profession. However, teachers’ interest in knowing other cultures was not considered a leading reason to enter the profession, yet this acted as a major motivating factor to stay in the teaching career.

Teachers’ working conditions, such as salary levels, were not identified as a motive for entering the profession, although it became more relevant the longer teachers stayed in the profession. Equally, experienced teachers identified job stability as a major factor in the decision to stay within the profession. One open-ended question asked teachers to reflect on other motives that have supported their decision to continue working as English teachers. Two of the most frequently cited motives were their care for the profession and their students, along with their desire to contribute to society. As one respondent observed:

I want to contribute to the social mobility of most vulnerable groups and being an example that dreams can come true and that willpower works (T3:114).

Other significant motives identified related to their desire to continue developing professionally and contributing to the training of future professional citizens. Other reasons for continuing working as teachers included having a good working environment and their desire to be good teachers.

Self-efficacy

As discussed previously, language proficiency is generally perceived to be one of the most important qualifications of a language teacher and several studies (Chacon, 2002; Lee, 2009; Crook, 2016; and Chacon, 2005) have revealed that generally there is a positive correlation between teachers’ self-reported language proficiency and instructional abilities (Faez and Karas, 2017). Following this, respondents of the questionnaire were asked to rate how important English language proficiency was for the profession. Significantly, 80% of respondents rated this at the maximum score. In regard to perceptions of their levels of English, 69% of teachers reported having an advanced level of English (C1–C2), and 29% an intermediate level (B1–B2).

Teachers were also asked to respond as to how satisfied they felt with their teaching performance against a set of identified teaching practices. These included such things as encouraging students to learn English, being creative in the classroom, improving their students’ well-being and having students understand and value their own culture (see Figure 1 for further details).

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Figure 1.

Self-reported efficacy on teaching practices.

Most of the teachers reported feeling either fairly satisfied or very satisfied with their own overall performance as teachers, with smaller percentages of teachers reporting they felt little or no satisfaction at all. The teaching practices that teachers felt the most satisfied with included improving students’ well-being, influencing their students’ learning holistically, and reflecting on the efficacy of their own teaching practices. In contrast, teachers reported they felt less effective in having students understand and value their own culture, and critically, encouraging students to learn English.

Teachers were also asked to suggest features that characterize English teachers as different from other teachers. Among characteristics offered by respondents, the one that was most frequently identified was creativity, innovation or imagination in relation with the design of learning activities and learning materials, or in their methods of presenting content to their students. Similarly, teachers observed the significance of updating their methodologies and activities, meaning they were able to deploy diverse methodologies, offer more dynamic classes and be more didactic. This general sentiment was reflected in one participant’s comment:

I consider myself an innovative teacher due to my continuing professional development in the workshops offered by the Ministry of Education. I already use some strategies and methodologies which are just recently being used in other subjects (T4: 388).

Other characteristics mentioned as distinctive included the capacity to adapt to different contexts and students, to be broad minded, to be cheerful, to possess a sense of humour, or be enthusiastic, committed, motivated, passionate about their job, patient, persistent, proactive, and responsible.

When specifically referring to their performance as teachers of English, respondents identified relevant characteristics as their proficiency in English, their capabilities to use information and communications technologies (ICTs) in the classroom, their reflection on their adopted practices, and their emphasis on providing comprehensible opportunities for meaningful learning.

Professional Development

Regarding the sources for learning, teachers were asked about the specific contributions of initial teacher training, on-going professional development and classroom experience. As illustrated in Table 3, most teachers claimed initial teacher training was the principal instance that contributed to their knowledge about the use of English as a means of instruction in the class. This initial development also played a continuing influential role in framing current teachers’ knowledge about lesson planning, assessment for learning, and the most effective uses of ICTs. In regard to continuing professional development, teachers indicated that it has mostly contributed to the development of new methodologies, researching aspects of the teaching-learning process, and to the reflection of their own teaching practices. Regarding factors such as classroom management, the management of individual differences, effective group work, and reflection on their own teaching practices, the main source of professional knowledge was identified as emerging from their own classroom experiences.

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Table 3.

Teaching Practices and Professional Development.

	Initial Teacher Training	Continuing Professional Development	Classroom Experience	Other
Effective use of ICTs	35%	28%	30%	8%
Use of English as a means of instruction in the class	51%	20%	26%	4%
Effective group work	31%	25%	40%	4%
Reflection on self teaching practices	30%	32%	32%	6%
Lesson planning	48%	22%	27%	3%
Management of individual differences	27%	24%	45%	4%
Classroom management	30%	15%	52%	2%
Research aspects of the teaching-learning process	35%	37%	21%	6%
Assessment for learning	39%	31%	27%	3%
Develop new methodologies	27%	39%	30%	6%

Teachers also identified a range of other factors that have contributed to their professional development. As demonstrated in Figure 2, a key factor for teachers’ professional development was collaborative work undertaken with other colleagues. Professional development was understood as pursuing postgraduate studies, Masters degrees or PhDs, as well as their own independent learning, which was frequently mentioned. Studying or living in English speaking countries was also considered as a source for learning and development by some respondents.

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Figure 2.

Sources of Professional Development.

Satisfaction and Recognition

Teachers were asked to rate their current level of satisfaction with their jobs (using a scale from 1 to 5 with 5 being the highest point). Most teachers rated their satisfaction level with a 4, with the second majority rating it with a 5. However, when teachers were asked to rate from 1 to 5 how their job was valued by society, most of them rated it between 2 (36%) and 3 (25%), while only 6% of the teachers rated it with a 5.

Teachers also responded to an open-ended question regarding factors that contributed to their level of satisfaction with their jobs. The main factors signalled by teachers were: students’ positive attitude toward the subject, as well as students’ constant progress. This aspect was well reflected in the comment from one respondent:

My students’ results, the change of their opinion regarding English, their “Thank you teacher” at the end of every semester (T5: 235).

The strategies that I use, although they take time, have demonstrated to be effective as they contribute to students’ self-esteem and interests (T5: 235).

Another factor that contributed to teachers’ satisfaction was their personal desire to improve their teaching. This can be connected with what other teachers expressed as their belief that working as a teacher offered a sense of personal fulfilment. Along the same lines, teachers reported feeling satisfied when thinking about their professional development in the field of teaching.

When asked to respond regarding their perceptions of the social recognition of the profession and the sense of worth accorded to it, most respondents signalled their school communities as key to shaping their sense of worth. As one respondent observed:

The respect from the school community, the fact that my students chose me as the best teacher of the school and nominated me to the Global Teacher Prize. Therefore, I feel I do a good job that can be improved (T6: 516).

In relation to the factors that go against teachers’ sense of satisfaction and undermine their profession, most participants identified salaries and working conditions as the crucial source of low levels of satisfaction and undervaluing of the profession. Responding teachers considered that low salaries represented a negative assessment of the significance of their jobs, as captured in the comment below:

People say: “(s/he) is just a teacher”; also, our job is not valued in monetary terms (T6: 235).

Teachers reported poor working conditions, such as short-term contracts, and work overload (too many teaching hours, large classes, lack of resources) to be detrimental for their work satisfaction and recognition. Some participants also reported mistreatment at school by parents, students, and school administrators (verbal abuse and even physical violence). Some respondents also identified students’ negative attitudes towards English, their lack of progress, and their low levels of motivation to learn the language as factors influencing their low levels of satisfaction. Moreover, some teachers reported that students’ low socioeconomic background and parents’ lack of support can have a negative impact on their work and motivation.