Demographic,Transition,and Vocational Rehabilitation Service Variables’ Association With High School Completion Outcomes of Youth With Disabilities Receiving SSI

Abstract

Completing high school expands career prospects for young adults with disabilities, increasing their likelihood for gainful employment. Those who graduate from high school are more likely to have higher salaries and longer job tenure than those who do not have high school diplomas. As such, graduating from high school is a significant milestone for students with disabilities. Yet, the specific predictors of high school completion among youth with disabilities are not well understood. This study used three multiple logistic regression analyses and a hierarchical logistic regression analysis to evaluate demographic, PROMISE transition services, and vocational rehabilitation (VR) services as predictors of high school completion in a sample of 350 transition-age youth receiving Supplemental Security Income. Among the demographic variables examined, race, disability type, parent education, and family income were significant predictors of completion. For transition services, social skills training and self-advocacy training were independently associated with high school completion, while miscellaneous training was the only independent significant VR service predictor. Findings support the importance of pre-employment transition services, especially in the areas of social skills training, self-advocacy training, and VR services in the areas of miscellaneous training that can be used to promote completion of high school.

Keywords

transition services vocational rehabilitation services high school completion supplemental security income recipients

Completing high school is important for students with and without disabilities as they journey from adolescence to emerging adulthood. Data have consistently shown that students who graduate from high school will do better than students with less than a high school diploma in terms of job opportunities, options for college, lifetime earnings, and sense of accomplishment (Rumberger, 2011; Tamborini et al., 2015). For example, the unemployment rate in January 2017 for the U.S. population was 4.8%. It was lowest for those with at least a bachelor’s degree (2.5%), followed by those who graduated high school but did not attend college (5.3%). In contrast, the unemployment rate for those who had not completed high school was 7.7% (U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017). Furthermore, the median weekly earnings for people without a high school diploma was US$520 per week compared with US$712 for individuals with a high school diploma (no college), and US$1,173 for persons with a bachelor’s degree (U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). The difference in lifetime earnings is substantial and clearly demonstrates that individuals with higher levels of educational attainment have a better chance of obtaining well-paying jobs with benefits and promotion opportunities than people who do not complete high school (O’Neill et al., 2015; Tamborini et al., 2015).

For students with disabilities, graduating from high school provides the opportunity to participate in postsecondary education, find integrated competitive employment, and live independently with economic security to facilitate entry to the middle class (O’Neill et al., 2015). Conversely, students with disabilities who drop out of high school have grimmer economic and social prospects. Compared with high school graduates, they are less likely to find a job and earn lower income, more likely to rely on public assistance, and more likely to live in poverty and experience a variety of adverse health outcomes (Rumberger, 2011). Unfortunately, only 84.8% of students with disabilities graduate, which is significantly lower than the 93.6% rate for students without disabilities (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2017). Research to identify predictors and risk factors related to high school completion is needed to inform the development of empirically supported interventions to help students with disabilities persist in completing their high school education.

In particular, understanding predictors of high school completion for youth with disabilities who receive childhood Supplemental Security Income (SSI) is vital. SSI is a rapidly growing federal program administered by the Social Security Administration (SSA) that provides cash payments to youth with severe disabilities who qualify based on economic hardship (SSA, 2013). These youth face the dual challenge of growing up with a disability and experiencing family poverty and often go on to face enormous challenges in their transition from school to adulthood (Davies et al., 2009; Loprest & Wittenburg, 2007). Wittenburg (2011) reported that youth receiving SSI had substantial high school dropout rates (39%), low employment rates (22%), and over half (57%) were not employed, enrolled in education, or receiving VR services. Moreover, there is considerable variation in the quality and access to transition and VR services among these youth (Hemmeter et al., 2017). This is concerning especially in light of the paucity of research examining the specific services that can promote successful transition outcomes for this group. Further research is needed to examine specific VR and transition service variables that are effective for promoting school completion for youth receiving SSI to aid VR counselors in making empirically informed service decisions in collaboration with their consumers.

Wisconsin’s Promoting the Readiness of Minors in Supplemental Security Income (PROMISE) is one of the six model demonstration projects supported by the federal government to address these existing gaps. In this project, students receiving SSI are connected with needed transition services and supports (including self-advocacy training, social skills training, work incentives benefits counseling, health literacy, financial empowerment, and family coaching) and state VR counselors provide case management and VR services (e.g., job readiness training, job search assistance, transportation) to help youth with SSI and their families navigate the VR system.

Variables Associated With High School Completion

Demographic Variables

There are several well-known demographic predictors of high school completion and dropout. Burrus and Roberts (2012) conducted a comprehensive review of the literature and identified several risk factors for dropping out of high school, including coming from a family with low income, being male, and being a member of racial/ethnic minority background. A strong association between socioeconomic status and high school dropout rates was reported by Rumberger (2007, 2011). Research suggests that students who come from households with higher than average income are less likely to drop out, whereas students from low-income households are more likely to drop out of school before graduation (Battin-Pearson et al., 2000; Catterall, 2012; Zablocki, 2009). Moreover, lower parental expectations and lack of parental participation are major predictors of school dropout (Battin-Pearson et al., 2000; Dalton et al., 2009). Specifically, parents’ low expectations of their children’s educational achievement, lack of home-based supports, and limited parental involvement in the school have been shown to be associated with high school dropout (Battin-Pearson et al., 2000; Chen & Gregory, 2009; Doren et al., 2014; Fan & Williams, 2010).

Students with disabilities are at increased risk for dropping out compared with their peers without disabilities (NCES, 2017) and this risk appears to vary by disability type (e.g., Dunn et al., 2004; Zablocki, 2009). According to NCES statistics data in 2018, the graduation rates differ by type of disability. For example, only 43% of students with intellectual disability graduated with a high school diploma, while 85% of students with speech or language impairment graduated with a high school diploma. Moreover, students with emotional disability had the highest dropout rate (35%), while students with deaf-blindness or visual impairment had lower dropout rates, 5% and 7%, respectively (NCES, 2020). Schifter (2011) reported that students with learning disabilities had the earliest median time-to-graduation (average 4.57 years) after entry into high school, while students with deaf-blindness had the longest, at 5.33 years. A study comparing students by disability type found that students with psychiatric disabilities and cognitive disabilities have significantly lower odds of graduating from high school, when compared with students with physical disabilities (Zablocki, 2009). This is consistent with findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS-2, 2005) reporting that youth with emotional disturbance, multiple disabilities, and ID to be among the greatest at risk for not completing high school.

Transition and Vocational Rehabilitation (VR) Service Variables

Existing research suggests that there are a number of variables related to the PROMISE transition and VR services that may impact high school completion and employment outcomes for youth and young adults with disabilities. In particular, access to career and vocational services and experiences is beneficial for promoting positive transition outcomes. Students with paid jobs during high school are more likely to graduate from high school (Benz et al., 1997; Doren & Benz, 1998) as well as engage in employment (Carter et al., 2011). Students who participate in career-focused education have been found to be more likely to stay in school through 12th grade, have improved attendance, and earned increased number of credits toward graduation (Kemple & Scott-Clayton, 2004; Kemple & Snipes, 2000). In addition, student engagement in evidence-based transition practices, including career awareness training, paid employment/work experiences, social skills training, and occupational coursework, is positively correlated with improved post-school outcomes in education and employment (Test & Cease-Cook, 2012; Test et al., 2009; Wehman et al., 2015). State–federal VR agencies offer an array of career-focused services to transition-age students with disabilities, including career guidance and counseling, assessment, job readiness training, job exploration, job search assistance, job support, transportation services, and additional training (U.S. Department of Education, Rehabilitation Services Administration, 2016). Although less research has examined these services related to high school completion outcomes, there is robust research supporting the effectiveness of these services for transition-age youth and young adults with disabilities (e.g., Alsaman & Lee, 2017; Kaya et al., 2016; Wehman et al., 2014).

There is also strong support for the effectiveness of curricula and training programs that are designed to improve students’ ability to manage challenges in school and work contexts and directly connect schoolwork with postsecondary and career success on improving dropout rates (Rumberger et al., 2017). For instance, there is growing research supporting the importance of work-related social skills for promoting successful transition outcomes for youth with disabilities (Murray & Doren, 2013; Test & Cease-Cook, 2012). Higher levels of self-advocacy, self-determination, and expectations for employment have also been well documented as predictors of future employment and postsecondary education (Geenen et al., 2013; McGrew & Evans, 2004; Test et al., 2009; Wagner et al., 2005). This research suggests that there may be benefits to specific training and coaching in the areas of health literacy, financial self-sufficiency, self-advocacy, and social skills. Students with disabilities who do not complete high school are less likely to go on to postsecondary education, work full-time, or even have a checking account compared with their peers with disabilities who completed high school (NLTS-2, 2005). This suggests the particular relevance of financial coaching in addition to training targeting self-advocacy and social skills for this group.

In addition, students with disabilities may face challenges related to their health and health management as they transition to adulthood, with research findings indicating that the health literacy of students receiving special education services is significantly lower than their peers (Trout et al., 2018). For students with disabilities who receive disability benefits, it is also important to consider access to work incentive benefits counseling. Benefits counseling provides informed choice to individuals on how employment income and savings will affect their disability monetary and health benefits (Lui et al., 2010) and has been shown to increase work and earnings outcomes (Delin et al., 2012; Schimmel et al., 2010; Tremblay et al., 2004). Technology is another important consideration for improving students’ learning processes and motivation (Park et al., 2014), with research supporting the association between academic gains and retention of students with disabilities and their access to technology, such as iPads (Kuo & Kuo, 2015; Quick, 2014).

Purpose of the Study

The data are clear that completing high school will provide better postsecondary education and employment opportunities for students with disabilities, especially those from families experiencing economic hardship. However, specific VR and transition services (i.e., PROMISE transition services) that are associated with high school completion, specifically among youth with disabilities who are SSI beneficiaries, are not well understood. This is a particularly timely issue given the legislative mandates calling for pre-employment services to promote successful school outcomes and employment of transition-age students with disabilities. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate demographic variables, PROMISE transition services, and VR services as predictors of high school completion for transition-age youth with disabilities who receive SSI benefits. The specific research questions that guided this study were the following:

Research Question 1: What demographic variables are associated with high school completion of youth with disabilities who receive SSI benefits?

Research Question 2: What PROMISE transition services are associated with high school completion of youth with disabilities who receive SSI benefits?

Research Question 3: What VR services are associated with high school completion of youth with disabilities who receive SSI benefits?

Research Question 4: What demographic variables, PROMISE transition services, and VR services are associated with high school completion of youth with disabilities who receive SSI benefits?

Method

Participants and Data Source

Data for the present study were extracted from the Wisconsin PROMISE database collected by the Wisconsin PROMISE project, Wisconsin DVR (VR service provision data), and Wisconsin Division of Public Instruction. High school completion data were included in the PROMISE MIS via a data sharing agreement with the state education agency and were pulled as of July 10, 2019. All participants received a US$15 gift card for enrolling and a US$15 gift card for completing the intake form. The University of Wisconsin–Stout Institutional Review Board (IRB) approved the study for Human Subjects participation. The inclusion criteria for this study were (a) between ages 14 and 16 at intake, (b) recipients of transition and VR services through Wisconsin PROMISE (i.e., students in the treatment group), and (c) clearly coded as having completed high school or dropped out of high school in the PROMISE database. Using these criteria, 350 transition-age youth with disabilities were selected for the present study. The sample consisted of 237 (67.9%) males and 112 (32.0%) females. Regarding race/ethnicity, 140 students were Black (45.4%), followed by 140 White students (40%) and 51 who identified as other race/ethnicity (14.6%). The primary disability type of the students in the sample was psychiatric disability (n = 130, 37.1%), followed by long-term illness (n = 102, 29.1%), developmental disability (n = 98, 28.0%), and other disability (n = 20, 5.7%). Two hundred four students reported their parents’ highest educational level was high school graduate or less (58.3%), followed by some college (n = 96, 27.4%), associate degree (n = 26, 7.4%), and bachelor’s degree or higher (n = 18, 5.1%). There were 113 students (32.3%) whose total family income was reported to be US$10,000 a year or less, 131 students (37.4%) with family income between US$10,000 and US$24,999, and 64 students (18.3%) with family income greater than US$24,999. Two hundred eighty-two students had an Individualized Education Program (IEP). Eighty-six students (24.6%) dropped out of high school and 264 students (75.4%) completed high school (see Table 1).

Table 1.

Study Participant Characteristics.

Characteristic	n	%
Dependent variable: High school completion (Yes)	264	75.4
Gender
Male	237	67.9
Female	112	32.0
Missing	1
Race
Black	159	45.4
White	140	40.0
Other	51	14.6
Disability
Psychiatric	130	37.1
Developmental	98	28.0
Long-term illness	102	29.1
Other	20	5.7
IEP (yes)	282	80.6
Parent education
High school or less	204	58.3
Some college	96	27.4
Associate degree	26	7.4
Bachelor’s degree or higher	18	5.1
Family income
<US$10,000	113	32.3
US$10,000–US$24,999	131	37.4
≧US$25,000	64	18.3
Missing	42	12.0
Youth’s expectation (No)	104	29.7
Parent’s expectation (No)	86	24.6
PROMISE transition services (Yes)
Health literacy training	138	39.4
Financial capital building	219	62.6
Family advocacy training	205	58.6
Savings account	147	42.0
Social skills training	142	40.6
Self-advocacy training	167	47.7
Benefits counseling	225	64.3
Tablets/iPads	306	87.4
VR services (yes)
Transportation	185	52.9
Miscellaneous training	169	48.3
Job search assistance	157	44.9
Assessment	150	42.9
Job readiness	130	37.1
Disability-related skills	115	32.9
Short-term job support	108	30.9
Maintenance	87	24.9
Other services	72	20.6
Job exploration service	46	13.1

Note. N = 350. IEP = Individualized Education Program; PROMISE = Promoting the Readiness of Minors in Supplemental Security Income; VR = vocational rehabilitation.

Variables

For this study, researchers pulled four general types of variables from the Wisconsin PROMISE database: student demographics, PROMISE transition services, VR services, and post-school outcomes (i.e., completion of high school). The independent and dependent variables considered in this study were as follows:

Independent variables

The demographic characteristics of study participants, PROMISE transition services, and VR services were considered predictors in this study. Demographic variables included gender, race/ethnicity, disability type, having had an IEP, parent education level, family income, youth’s expectation to graduate, and parent’s expectation of graduation. PROMISE transition services included health literacy, financial capacity building, family advocacy, savings account, social skills training, self-advocacy training, benefits counseling, and tablets/iPads (see Table 2 for a description of each service variable). VR services included assessment, disability-related skills training, job exploration, job readiness training, job search assistance, maintenance services, miscellaneous training, other services, short-term job support, and transportation service. The demographic characteristics and the number of participants who received each of PROMISE transition services and the VR services are described in Table 1. The reference category for all PROMISE transition services and VR services was students who did not receive the specific service (No) compared with students who had received the specific service (Yes).

Table 2.

Description of Vocational Rehabilitation and Transition Service Variables.

Service type	Description
PROMISE Transition Services
Health literacy training	Counselors shared four fact sheets across four different counseling sessions. Counselor, youth, & family created goals & homework in each area, including nutrition, physical activity, sleep, & stress management.
Financial capacity building	Financial capability education (“Make Your Money Talk” program) provided, w/ opportunity to develop skills & knowledge to plan for financial well-being. “Make Your Money Talk” program met over several weeks. Each session = 3 hr & included individual or group discussions, exercises, & take-home projects to help youth & families create a personal financial guide.
Family advocacy	Family advocacy provided during 3-hr workshop or individualized sessions for parents, caregivers, & other family members. Workshop helped them (a) identify that their child with a disability can work, (b) learn solutions to common barriers to having a job, (c) describe child’s strengths & abilities in a positive way, & (d) identify steps they can take now to support child for life after high school.
Savings account	Youth & families received expert financial advice & ideas to help meet their savings goal & invest in their future. Financial coaches helped PROMISE youth/family members set up Individual Development Accounts. When youth/family members met their savings goals, PROMISE funds matched their savings to purchase an item to help achieve education, employment, or financial self-sufficiency goals.
Social skills training	Training for soft skills included teaching effective communication, a positive attitude, teamwork, and problem solving. Groups or individuals met with trainers 3–6 times; each session lasted 2–3 hrs. At each meeting, participants learned about a different soft skill, including (a) communication skills, (b) enthusiasm & attitude, (c) teamwork, (d) networking, (e) problem solving & critical thinking, & (f) professionalism.
Self-advocacy training	Online self-guided program. Each participant explored concepts to help them become better self-advocate & discover their potential. Family advocates provided 1:1 support for youth who needed additional assistance completing learning modules. Specific skills & knowledge taught included using disability-related terminology, self-assessing disability & accommodation needs, identifying possible careers of interest, understanding laws & legal rights, setting goals for the short and long terms, & planning for education.
Benefits counseling	Work Incentives Benefits specialists provided (a) support communicating with various agencies (e.g., Social Security or Human Services), (b) benefits summary & analysis, (c) ongoing support when changes in income, insurance, or household occurred, & (d) help with developing plan for coordinating & managing work, work incentives, & working off of benefits.
Tablets/iPads	PROMISE funds provided each participant a tablet or iPad to complete online PROMISE services and supports.
VR services
Assessment	Services provided & activities performed to determine individual’s eligibility for VR services, to assign individual to a priority category of a state VR agency that operates under an order of selection, and/or to determine the nature & scope of VR services to be included in individualized plan for employment (IPE); included in this category are trial work experiences and extended evaluation.
Disability-related, augmentative skills training	Service included, but not limited to, orientation & mobility, rehabilitation teaching, training in use of low vision aids, Braille, speech reading, sign language, & cognitive training/retraining.
Job exploration	Job exploration counseling included a wide variety of professional activities that helped individuals with career-related issues. Career counselors worked with youth seeking to explore career options, experienced professionals contemplating a career change, parents who wanted to return to the world of work after taking time to raise their child, or people seeking employment.
Job readiness training	Training to prepare individual for the work world (e.g., appropriate work behaviors, methods for getting to work on time, appropriate dress and grooming, methods for increasing productivity).
Job search assistance	Job search activities that support & assist a consumer in searching for an appropriate job; may include help in preparing résumés, identifying appropriate job opportunities, & developing interview skills, & may include making contacts with companies on behalf of consumer.
Maintenance services	Maintenance means monetary support provided for such expenses as food, shelter, & clothing that are (a) in excess of the individual’s typical expenses & (b) necessitated by individual’s participation in an assessment for determining eligibility & VR needs or while receiving services under an IPE.
Miscellaneous training	Any training not recorded in one of the other training categories listed, including GED or high school training leading to a diploma
Other services	All other VR services that cannot be recorded elsewhere; included here are occupational licenses, tools & equipment, & initial stocks & supplies.
On-the-job supports-short term	Support services provided to individual who has been placed in employment to stabilize the placement & enhance job retention; such services include short-term job coaching for persons who do not have a supported employment goal consistent with the employment goal on the IPE.
Transportation	Travel & related expenses necessary to enable applicant or eligible individual to participate in a VR service; includes adequate training in use of public transportation vehicles & systems.

Note. PROMISE = Promoting the Readiness of Minors in Supplemental Security Income; VR = vocational rehabilitation; IPE = individualized plan for employment; GED = general educational development.

Dependent variable

The dependent variable in this study was high school completion. High school completion was coded as yes with a value of 1 or no with a value of 0. High school completion was coded as yes if the student earned any credential issued by a school board to recognize the student’s completion of high school. These credential types include regular diploma, other diploma, and high school equivalency credential other than General Educational Development (GED).

Data Analysis

A quantitative correlational design (Shadish et al., 2002) was used for the present study. The Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS version 24.0) was used for all data analyses. Descriptive statistics were computed to report frequencies and mean values for the independent and dependent variables, and three multivariate logistic regression analyses (LRAs) and a hierarchical logistic regression analysis (HLRA) were used to examine the relationship between the predictor variable sets and the high school completion outcome variable.

Results

To identify the important determinants of high school completion for students in this project, three multivariate LRAs were computed with demographic characteristics, PROMISE transition services, and VR services as predictor variables and high school completion as the dependent variable.

Demographic Variables

Demographic variables included gender (with male as the reference group), race (with Black as the reference group), type of disability (with psychiatric disability as the reference group), IEP (no IEP as the reference group), parent education (with high school or less as the reference group), family income (with <US$10,000 as the reference group), youth’s expectation (no expectation as the reference group), and parent’s expectation (no expectation as the reference group). The omnibus test for the logistic regression model was found to be statistically significant, χ²(14, N = 306) = 51.31, p < .0001. The Hosmer–Lemeshow test was not significant χ²(8, N = 306) = 12.13, p = .15, ns, indicating good model fit. The Nagelkerke R² was computed to be .23, indicating a robust association between the predictors and the outcome variable. The LRA results showed race/ethnicity, type of disability, and family income to be significant predictors of high school completion. Specifically, for White students with disabilities, the odds of completing high school were 2.79 times as large as the odds for Black students. For students with developmental disabilities, the odds of completing high school were 2.78 times as large as the odds for students with psychiatric disability. The odds for students with long-term illness completing high school were 3.04 times as large as the odds for students with psychiatric disability. For family incomes of US$10,000 to US$24,999, the odds of completing high school were 2.39 times as large as the odds for those with family income <US$10,000. The odds for students coming from families with income greater than US$25,000 completing high school were 3.19 times as large as the odds for students coming from families with income less than US$10,000. The logistic regression results are presented in Table 3.

Table 3.

Demographic Predictors of High School Completion.

Independent variable	β	SE	Wald χ²	p level	Odds ratio
Gender (Male)	0.61	0.34	3.25	.07	1.85, 95% CI [0.95, 3.60]
Race (Black)			8.48	.01*
White	1.03	0.36	8.26	.00*	2.79, 95% CI [1.39, 5.63]
Other	0.54	0.43	1.55	.21	1.71, 95% CI [0.73, 3.98]
Disability (psychiatric)			13.62	.00**
DD	1.02	0.38	7.26	.01*	2.78, 95% CI [1.32, 5.85]
Long-term illness	1.11	0.38	8.76	.00**	3.04, 95% CI [1.46, 6.36]
Other	1.59	0.83	3.63	.06	4.88, 95% CI [0.96, 24.91]
IEP (No)
Yes	0.34	0.40	0.72	.40	1.40, 95% CI [0.64, 3.05]
Parent education (high school or less)			7.79	.05
Some college	1.02	0.38	7.14	.01*	2.77, 95% CI [1.31, 5.85]
Associate degree	0.77	0.68	1.27	.26	1.40, 95%CI [0.57, 8.20]
Bachelor’s degree	0.09	0.73	0.02	.90	1.09, 95%CI [0.26, 4.51]
Family income (<US$10,000)			9.55	.01*
US$10,000–US$24,999	0.87	0.33	7.04	.01*	2.39, 95% CI [1.26, 4.53]
≧US$25,000	1.16	0.49	5.55	.02*	3.19, 95% CI [1.22, 8.39]
Youth’s expectation (no)	−0.27	0.42	0.42	.52	0.76, 95% CI [0.34, 1.72]
Parent’s expectation (no)	−0.06	0.46	0.02	.89	0.94, 95% CI [0.38, 2.33]
Constant	−0.87	0.37	5.41	.02	0.42

Note. CI = confidence interval; DD = developmental disability; IEP = Individualized Education Program.

p < .05. **p < .01.

PROMISE Transition Services Variables

PROMISE transition services included health literacy, financial capacity building, family advocacy, savings account, social skills training, self-advocacy training, benefits counseling, and tablets/iPads (see Table 2 for a description of each service). Student who received the specific service were compared with students who had not in the analysis. The omnibus test for the model was found to be statistically significant, χ²(8, N = 350) = 54.99, p < .001. The Hosmer–Lemeshow test was not significant, χ²(8, N = 350) = 7.89, p = .44, ns, indicating good model fit. The Nagelkerke R² was computed to be .22, indicating a robust association between the predictors and the outcome variable. The LRA results showed social skills training and self-advocacy training to be significant predictors of high school completion. Specifically, for students with disabilities who received social skills training, the odds of graduating from high school were 2.15 times as large as the odds for students with disabilities who did not receive social skills training. For students with disabilities who received self-advocacy training, the odds of graduating from high school were 4.01 times as large as the odds for students with disabilities who did not receive self-advocacy training. The logistic regression results are presented in Table 4.

Table 4.

PROMISE Transition Service Predictors of High School Completion.

Independent variable	β	SE	Wald χ²	p level	Odds ratio
Health literacy training	0.15	0.37	0.16	.69	1.16, 95% CI [0.56, 2.41]
Financial capital building	0.13	0.35	0.13	.72	1.14, 95% CI [0.57, 2.27]
Family advocacy training	−0.28	0.33	0.73	.39	0.75, 95% CI [0.39, 1.45]
Savings account	0.48	0.37	1.68	.20	1.62, 95% CI [0.78, 3.36]
Social skills training	0.76	0.34	5.21	.02*	2.15, 95% CI [1.11, 4.16]
Self-Advocacy training	1.39	0.41	11.77	.00**	4.01, 95% CI [1.81, 8.87]
Benefits counseling	0.07	0.34	0.05	.83	1.08, 95% CI [0.56, 2.09]
Tablets/iPads	0.04	0.38	0.01	.91	1.04, 95% CI [0.49, 2.21]
Constant	0.17	0.33	0.25	.62	1.18

Note. PROMISE = Promoting the Readiness of Minors in Supplemental Security Income; CI = confidence interval.

p < .05. **p < .01.

Vocational Rehabilitation Service Variables

VR service variables were based on whether the youth received the service. Services with greater than 10% utilization rate were included in the regression model, which included transportation (52.9%), miscellaneous training (48.3%), job search assistance (44.9%), assessment (42.9%), job readiness training (37.1%), disability related skills training (32.9%), short-term job support (30.9%), maintenance services (24.9%), other services (20.6), and job exploration services (13.1%; see Table 2 for a description of each). The omnibus test for the logistic regression model was found to be statistically significant, χ²(10, N = 350) = 34.88, p < .001. The Hosmer–Lemeshow test was not significant, χ²(10, N = 350) = 10.98, p = .20, ns, indicating a good model fit. The Nagelkerke R² was computed to be .14, indicating a small association between the predictors and the outcome variable. The LRA results revealed only one significant predictor. For students who received miscellaneous training, the odds of graduating from high school were 2.08 times as large as the odds for students who did not receive miscellaneous training. The logistic regression results are presented in Table 5.

Table 5.

Vocational Rehabilitation Service Predictors of High School Completion.

Independent variable	β	SE	Wald χ²	p level	Odds ratio
Transportation	−0.11	0.29	0.14	.71	0.90, 95% CI [0.51, 1.59]
Miscellaneous training	0.73	0.28	6.65	.01*	2.08, 95% CI [1.19, 3.61]
Job search assistance	0.24	0.31	0.58	.45	1.27, 95% CI [0.69, 2.35]
Assessment	0.46	0.29	2.50	.11	1.58, 95% CI [0.90, 2.80]
Job readiness	−0.00	0.36	0.00	.99	1.00, 95% CI [0.50, 2.00]
Disability related skills	0.05	0.31	0.03	.87	1.05, 95% CI [0.58, 1.92]
Short-term job support	0.59	0.40	2.22	.14	1.80, 95% CI [0.83, 3.93]
Maintenance	0.38	0.38	1.01	.32	1.47, 95% CI [0.69, 3.09]
Job exploration service	0.98	0.56	3.04	.08	2.27, 95% CI [0.89, 8.04]
Other services	0.13	0.39	0.10	.75	1.13, 95% CI [0.52, 2.45]
Constant	0.25	0.22	1.35	.25	1.29

Note. Miscellaneous training is described by the U.S. Department of Education, Rehabilitation Service Administration as “Any training not recorded in one of the other training categories listed, including GED or high school training leading to a diploma.” CI = confidence interval; GED = general educational development.

p < .05.

Table 6.

Hierarchical Logistic Regression Analysis for Prediction of High School Completion.

Independent variable	At entry into model					Final model
Independent variable	β	SE	Wald χ²	p level	Odds ratio	β	SE	Wald χ²	p level	Odds ratio
Step 1
Gender (male)	0.63	0.34	3.47	.06	1.87, 95% CI [0.97, 3.62]	0.52	0.36	2.12	.15	1.68, 95% CI [0.84, 3.38]
Race (Black)			7.69	.02*				6.52	.04*
White	0.94	0.35	7.42	.01**	2.57, 95% CI [1.30, 5.07]	0.87	0.38	5.15	.02*	2.38, 95% CI [1.13, 5.05]
Other	0.55	0.43	1.64	.20	1.74, 95% CI [0.75, 4.03]	0.87	0.47	3.42	.07	2.38, 95% CI [0.95, 5.96]
Disability (psychiatric)			13.43	.00**				9.08	.03*
DD	0.95	0.37	6.48	.01*	2.58, 95% CI [1.24, 5.35]	0.67	0.41	2.68	.10	1.95, 95% CI [0.88, 4.31]
Long-term illness	1.11	0.38	8.82	.00**	3.05, 95% CI [1.46, 6.35]	1.10	0.41	7.32	.01**	3.01, 95% CI [1.35, 6.67]
Other	1.64	0.82	3.98	.05*	5.13, 95% CI [1.03, 25.57]	1.40	0.85	2.71	.10	4.06, 95% CI [0.77, 21.5]
Parent education (high school or less)			7.81	.05*				6.91	.08
Some college	1.00	0.38	7.03	.01**	2.73, 95% CI [1.30, 5.72]	0.91	0.41	5.05	.03*	2.49, 95% CI [1.12, 5.53]
Associate degree	0.81	0.68	1.43	.23	2.24, 95% CI [0.60, 8.41]	1.01	0.71	2.06	.15	2.75, 95% CI [0.69, 10.98]
Bachelor’s degree	0.07	0.72	0.01	.92	1.08, 95% CI [0.26, 4.42]	−0.35	0.77	0.21	.65	0.71, 95% CI [0.16, 3.17]
Family income (<US$10,000)			9.79	.01**				6.82	.03*
US$10,000–US$24,999	0.88	0.33	7.26	.01**	2.41, 95% CI [1.27, 4.55]	0.80	0.35	5.23	.02*	2.24, 95% CI [1.12, 4.45]
≧US$25,000	1.16	0.49	5.68	.02*	3.20, 95% CI [1.23, 8.34]	0.97	0.51	3.68	.06	2.65, 95% CI [0.98, 7.15]
Constant	−0.86	0.35	6.10	.01*	0.43
Step 2
Social skills training	1.08	0.39	7.74	.01**	2.94, 95% CI [1.38, 6.3]	0.85	0.42	4.03	.05*	2.33, 95% CI [1.02, 5.31]
Self-advocacy training	1.07	0.37	8.45	.00**	2.93, 95% CI [1.42, 6.03]	0.95	0.38	6.23	.01*	2.58, 95% CI [1.23, 5.43]
Constant	−1.41	0.39	13.07	.00***	0.24
Step 3
Miscellaneous training	0.41	0.35	1.38	0.24	1.51, 95% CI [0.76, 3.02]	0.41	0.35	1.38	.24	1.51, 95% CI [0.76, 3.02]
Assessment	0.15	0.34	0.19	0.66	1.16, 95% CI [0.60, 2.27]	0.15	0.34	0.19	.66	1.16, 95% CI [0.6, 2.27]
Short-term job support	0.27	0.43	0.39	0.53	1.31, 95% CI [0.57, 3.03]	0.27	0.43	0.39	.53	1.31, 95% CI [0.57, 3.03]
Job exploration	0.55	0.66	0.70	0.40	1.73, 95% CI [0.48, 6.29]	0.55	0.66	0.70	.40	1.73, 95% CI [0.48, 6.29]
Constant	−1.64	0.42	15.12	.00***	0.19	−1.64	0.42	15.12	.00***	0.19

Note. CI = confidence interval; DD = developmental disability.

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Hierarchical Logistic Regression Analysis

Finally, we conducted a HLRA by integrating all notable predictors p ≤ .15 from the three logistic regression models. The p ≤ .15 threshold is based on the recommendation of Bursac et al. (2008) for purposeful selection of variables in logistic regression.

In the first step, demographic covariates (gender, race, disability type, parent education, and family income) were entered. The results showed race, type of disability, and family income to be significant predictors of high school completion. Specifically, for White students with disabilities, the odds of completing high school were 2.57 times as large as the odds for Black students. For students with developmental disabilities, the odds of completing high school were 2.58 times as large as the odds for students with psychiatric disability. The odds for students with long-term illness completing high school were 3.05 times as large as the odds for students with psychiatric disability. For family incomes of US$10,000 to US$24,999, the odds of completing high school were 2.41 times as large as the odds for those with family income less than US$10,000. The odds for students coming from families with income greater than US$25,000 completing high school were 3.20 times as large as the odds for students coming from families with income less than US$10,000.

In the second step, transition service predictors (i.e., social skills training and self-advocacy training) were entered. The results showed social skills training and self-advocacy training to be significant predictors of high school completion after controlling for the effect of other variables in the regression model. Specifically, for students with disabilities who received social skills training, the odds of graduating from high school were 2.94 times as large as the odds for students with disabilities who did not receive social skills training. For students with disabilities who received self-advocacy training, the odds of completing high school were 2.93 times as large as the odds for students with disabilities who did not receive self-advocacy training. In addition, race/ethnicity (i.e., White), type of disability (i.e., long-term illness), and family income (i.e., family incomes of US$10,000 to US$24,999 and greater than US$25,000) were found to be significant predictors of high school completion.

In the final step, VR service predictors (i.e., miscellaneous training, assessment, short-term job support, and job exploration service) were entered. The omnibus test for the final hierarchical logistic regression model was found to be statistically significant, χ²(17, N = 306) = 78.64, p < .001. The Hosmer–Lemeshow test was not significant χ²(8, N = 306) = 4.26, p =.83, indicating a good model fit. The Nagelkerke R² was computed to be .34, indicating a robust association between the predictors and the outcome variable. The results showed that although miscellaneous training was significant in the LRA but was not significant in the presence of predictors that were entered in Step 1 and Step 2.

In the final model, race, type of disability, family income, social skills training, and self-advocacy training were significant predictors of high school completion. Specifically, for White students with disabilities, the odds of completing high school were 2.38 times as large as the odds for Black students. The odds for students with long-term illness completing high school were 3.01 times as large as the odds for students with psychiatric disability. For family incomes of US$10,000 to US$24,999, the odds of completing high school were 2.24 times as large as the odds for those with family income less than US$10,000. The odds for students coming from families with income greater than US$25,000 completing high school were 2.65 times as large as the odds for students coming from families with income less than US$10,000. For students with disabilities who received social skills training, the odds of graduating from high school were 2.33 times as large as the odds for students with disabilities who did not receive social skills training. For students with disabilities who received self-advocacy training, the odds of completing high school were 2.58 times as large as the odds for students with disabilities who did not receive self-advocacy training.

Discussion

Completing high school has many benefits. It expands career opportunities and gives high school students the option of pursuing higher education and increased likelihood of gainful employment (Go College New York, 2020; Rumberger, 2011; Tamborini et al., 2015). High school graduates also make more money and stay employed longer than those who do not complete high school. In addition, people who are gainfully employed have better physical and mental health (Kamerāde et al., 2019; O’Neill et al., 2015). Among VR consumers, individuals who did not complete high school have lowest odds of receiving services and having successful outcome (Honeycutt et al., 2017). For these reasons, helping students with disabilities graduate from high school is an important goal of secondary transition and VR services. A transition plan that includes high school graduation gives students who are child SSI recipients hope for an adult life beyond remaining on SSI.

In the present study, we found three important non-modifiable characteristics predicting high school completion. White students with disabilities were more likely to complete high school than Black students. Students with psychiatric disabilities had the highest dropout rate compared with students with developmental disabilities and long-term illness. Students who came from families with higher incomes were associated with greater odds of completing high school. These findings are consistent with national statistics and the high school dropout literature (Battin-Pearson et al., 2000; Burrus & Roberts, 2012; Catterall, 2012; Harding, 2003; Schifter, 2016). Students who are from a minority background with a psychiatric disability and come from a family with lower income may need additional attention and support to help increase their motivation and self-efficacy and access to services and resources to successfully graduate from high school. Furthermore, changes to school funding structures with an aim to increase funding for schools in lower income neighborhoods may provide the funding needed for additional resources and supports.

Among the PROMISE transition services examined, we found two significant service predictors: social skills training and self-advocacy training. Research has also demonstrated the importance of these skills to succeed in college (National Technical Assistance Center on Transition, 2015). For example, there are positive relationships between high social skills and capacity to perform self-determination behaviors as well as opportunities to engage in self-determined behavior in school (Doren et al., 2014). Students who participated in transition programs that support self-advocacy and self-determination had higher postsecondary self-determination skills (National Technical Assistance Center on Transition, 2015; Wehmeyer & Kelchner, 1995). In the present study, we found that helping high school students with disabilities develop these nonacademic skills for transition to college is equally important to facilitate goal persistence in high school. Providing training in these essential skills at the high school level appears to help them graduate and allow for a more successful transition to postsecondary education or employment.

In our examination of VR services, we found only one significant predictor. Students who received miscellaneous training were more likely to complete high school than students who did not receive miscellaneous training. Miscellaneous training is defined by the U.S. Department of Education, Rehabilitation Service Administration as “Any training not recorded in one of the other training categories listed, including GED or high school training leading to a diploma.” Students with disabilities who struggle with the traditional diploma track may benefit from accommodations, alternative pathways to a regular diploma, and/or alternatives to graduation via other high school completion credentials. Wisconsin provides a variety of options for alternatives (https://dpi.wi.gov/graduation/paths), but these options vary state by state. If alternatives to high school completion are not available or these alternative options are not sufficient given a student’s needs or situation, additional support to complete a GED may be helpful. Participants who received miscellaneous training might be more motivated to complete high school and seek alternative pathways to high school completion. They have received the services that support to achieve those goals. Therefore, it is understandable that participants who received miscellaneous training are more likely to achieve this study’s outcome variable.

Findings from our integrated hierarchical logistic regression model indicated that demographic covariates and transition services remain the strongest predictors of high school completion. However, in the presence of demographics and transition service variables, miscellaneous training as a VR service predictor is no longer significant.

Implications for Vocational Rehabilitation and Transition Practice

With the passage of the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) in 2014 and the amendments to the Rehabilitation Act, state VR agencies are required to set aside at least 15% of their federal funds for “pre-employment transition services” for transition-age students with disabilities. These services include (a) job exploration counseling; (b) work-based learning experiences, which may include in-school or after school opportunities, experiences outside of the traditional school setting, and/or internships; (c) counseling on opportunities for enrollment in comprehensive transition or postsecondary educational programs; (d) workplace readiness training to develop social skills and independent living; and (e) instruction in self-advocacy.

Our study’s findings support the importance of pre-employment transition services. Specifically, we empirically validated the association between soft skills training and self-advocacy training with high school completion among youth with disabilities receiving SSI.

The U.S. Department of Labor has developed “Soft Skills to Pay the Bills” (can be downloaded from http://www.dol.gov/odep/topics/youth/softskills/) This is a soft skills training curriculum focused on teaching workplace interpersonal and professional skills to youth ages 14 to 21 in both in-school and out-of-school environments including youth with disabilities. This may help students develop interpersonal skills in their high schools as well as motivate them to pursue their post-high school career including employment and or postsecondary schools (U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Disability Employment Policy, 2020). There is also existing curriculum designed to teach self-advocacy skills to students with disabilities. For instance, researchers for Wisconsin PROMISE developed a self-advocacy curriculum for high school students with disabilities in the project. It is an online self-guided program that can be completed within a relatively short time period and within which each student explores concepts to help them become a better self-advocate and discover their potential. Similar curriculum has been designed specifically for students with autism, including curriculum by the High Desert Education Service District in Oregon titled “A Self-Advocacy Curriculum for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder” (Swedland et al., 2005), and the “Assistive Soft Skills and Employment Training” (ASSET) program developed by researchers at Michigan State University (Sung et al., 2019). For students with disabilities who need a different pathway to achieve a high school credential, rehabilitation counselors and transition specialists should consider the use of alternate (miscellaneous) training to help these students prepare for high school completion or their GED.

Finally, transition, VR counselors, and other disability service providers should be mindful of the risk factors associated with dropping out of high school. Black students with a psychiatric disability from a low-income family are the highest risk group. Mentoring and developing a better working alliance with these students can increase these at-risk students’ motivation to engage in transition and VR services that will help them graduate from high school to pursue postsecondary education or employment.

Study Limitations

There are several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the present findings. First, our study used secondary data with an ex-post-facto design; therefore, we cannot make cause-and-effect inferences regarding the relationships between the predictors and the dependent variable. Second, Wisconsin PROMISE is a 5-year longitudinal project. There are students who were still in high school at the end of the project and could not be included in the study. Third, because PROMISE youth enrolled when they were as young as 14, rehabilitation counselors may need time and training to adjust their adult service models to better serve transition-age youth with disabilities. Finally, the service variables used in this study were broad. For instance, “miscellaneous training” was a significant predictor, but we do not have specific information on the precise types or quality of miscellaneous training provided.

Conclusion

The present study evaluated demographic variables, PROMISE transition services, and VR services as predictors of high school completion for students with disabilities who receive SSI benefits. Social skills training and self-advocacy training were significant predictors of high school completion for students with disabilities. Although this study aligned with previous research identifying demographic variables associated with high school completion, findings also suggested that high school completion can be improved by providing effective vocational and transition services. This study demonstrated the particular usefulness of social skills training and self-advocacy training to support students with disabilities to complete high school or earn their diploma—an important milestone to set them on a path for further career development, higher quality of life, and reduced reliance on SSI benefits.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The views expressed herein do not necessarily represent the positions or policies of the Department of Education, the Wisconsin Department of Workforce Development, or their federal or state partners. No official endorsement by the U.S. Department of Education or the Wisconsin Department of Workforce Development of any product, commodity, service, or enterprise mentioned in this publication is intended or should be inferred.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The contents of this paper were developed under a cooperative agreement with the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, associated with PROMISE Award #H418P140002. Selete Avoke served as the project officer.

ORCID iD

Kanako Iwanaga

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