Reducing the Influence of Perceived Stress on Subjective Well-Being of Student Veterans With and Without Disabilities: The Protective Role of Positive Traits and Social Support

Abstract

The transition from the regimented environment of military service to a less structured college lifestyle can be stressful for student veterans with and without disabilities, which highlights the importance of exploring protective person-environmental contextual factors that can help student veterans with and without disabilities manage their stress effectively, leading to enhanced well-being. The purpose of this cross-sectional correlational design study was to examine the role of positive person-environment contextual factors, including hope, resilience, core self-evaluations, and social support, to reduce the influence of perceived stress on the subjective well-being (SWB) of student veterans with and without disabilities. The sample consisted of 205 student veterans (71.7% males; 80.5% White; M_age = 29.32; 39% with service-connected disability). Findings suggested that core self-evaluations and social support partially mediated the relationship between perceived stress and SWB in student veterans with and without disabilities. Implications for clinicians, university counselors, and university staff are also discussed.

Keywords

student veterans perceived stress subjective well-being hope resilience core self-evaluations social support

Gainful employment is defined as a job position for which employees receive steady work and payment from their employers. The financial, psychological, social, and health rewards of gainful employment are well documented (Fryers, 2006; Helliwell et al., 2020; Smedema et al., 2016). More specifically, individuals, including veterans, who are gainfully employed enjoy higher levels of physical health, mental health, and life satisfaction than unemployed ones (Helliwell et al., 2020; Kamerāde et al., 2019; Umucu, Reyes, Nay, et al., 2021). To obtain gainful employment and enter the middle class, a college education is one of the most effective career pathways for young adults and prime working-age adults to take (Tansey et al., 2018; Umucu, Wu, et al., 2020). In 2020, the unemployment rate stood at 2.8% for college graduates, 3.8% for high school graduates, and 5.5% for individuals with less than a high school diploma (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2020). In addition, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, the influence of educational attainment on work-life earnings surpasses that of all other demographic variables (Julian & Kominski, 2011). Kena and colleagues (2014) found that the median annual income (in constant 2012 dollars) was $46,900 for young adults with a bachelor’s degree, $30,000 for those with a high school credential, and $22,900 for those without a high school credential. On average, men with college degrees earn $900,000 more in median lifetime earnings than male high school graduates, and women with college degrees earn $630,000 more than female high school graduates (Tamborini et al., 2015).

Approximately 2.7 million service members have been to the war zones of Iraq and Afghanistan (Committee on the Assessment of Resilience Prevention Programs for Mental Behavioral Health in Service Members Their Families et al., 2014). As these service members return to civilian life, many become college students to prepare for the civilian job market and build career pathways to enter the middle class (Cate, 2014). However, transitioning from the regimented environment of military service to a less structured college lifestyle can be challenging and stressful for student veterans, as many of these individuals are first-generation college students (Umucu, 2017; Umucu et al., 2018; Umucu, Wu, et al., 2020). In addition, approximately one third of students arrive on campus with service-related disabilities (Wurster et al., 2013). To help student veterans cope with the stressors and challenges related to their financial, academic support, health, mental health, and social service needs, university counseling and health services have provided support services (Newman et al., 2011).

The Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has had a significant influence on college students experiencing high levels of stress and anxiety, which affects both their physical and mental health (Son et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020). These high levels of stress can lead to changes in the autonomic nervous and immune system, and prolonged stress can result in further physical and mental health complications (Dutcher & Creswell, 2018; Menard, 2017). Because of this, it is crucial to identify protective factors (personal strengths and supportive environments) that can reduce the influence of perceived stress, depression, and anxiety levels of college students—especially student veterans—during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. The results of these positive psychology research studies can inform the selection and provision of evidence-based positive psychology interventions to help student veterans cope with the challenges associated with the transition from military to college life. Furthermore, such findings can also aid in providing interventions to support students against COVID-19–related stressors, such as social isolation, financial difficulties, and changes in education routines. There are several positive psychology constructs, such as hope, resilience, core self-evaluations (CSE), and social support, that have strong empirical support as protective factors against stress, anxiety, and depression. The present study focused on the extent to which these positive psychology factors can reduce the influence of perceived stress on the subjective well-being (SWB) of student veterans.

Hope

Hope is a positive motivational state based on an interactively derived sense of successful agency thinking and pathway thinking (Snyder et al., 1991). Agency thinking is the motivational component of the model and is defined as the perceived capacity to use imagined routes to achieve goals (Snyder, 2000), while pathway thinking is the belief in one’s ability to create plausible mental routes to achieve desired goals (Snyder et al., 2006). Furthermore, both causality and perceived control are cognitions that are essential to agency and pathway thinking. Individuals who hold the firm belief that they are the author of the causal chains of life events will develop agency and pathway thoughts (Chan et al., 2013). Positive psychology research has indicated that hope has significant positive effects on academic performance, physical health, and psychological health outcomes (Snyder et al., 2006). In a systematic review of the relationship between hope and depression, findings indicated that hope plays a crucial role as psychological support for the treatment of depression as both a protective factor for mental health and a more effective therapeutic (Leite et al., 2019).

Resilience

Resilience is one of the most prominent constructs in positive psychology (Catalano et al., 2011). The concept of resilience has generated significant interest among positive psychology researchers. Dyer and McGuinness (1996) defined the concept of resilience as one’s ability to “bounce back” quickly from events of adversity. Moreover, the American Psychological Association (2012) described resilience as the process of adapting in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats, or significant sources of stress, such as family and relationship problems, serious health problems, or workplace and financial stressors. Positive psychology research has conceptualized resilience not only as a protective factor against depression but also as a facilitator for life satisfaction (Moser et al., 2020; Ring et al., 2016).

Core Self-Evaluations

Core self-evaluations (CSE) is a higher-order personality trait initially defined by researchers in organizational psychology (Judge et al., 1998). It has received considerable attention as a personal-strengths variable from positive psychology researchers. This higher-order trait is composed of four positive human traits: self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability (Judge et al., 1998). Judge et al. (2005) asserted that individuals’ beliefs about their lives are influenced by fundamental evaluations of themselves. Likewise, individuals who consider themselves competent tend to react more positively to the challenges and stressors of everyday life compared with those who perceive themselves as incompetent. After investigating a sample of 251 employees, Judge et al. (2005) reported that CSE is associated with both job satisfaction and life satisfaction. CSE was also studied in the rehabilitation field. For example, CSE partially mediated the relationship between functional disability and life satisfaction in college students with disabilities (Smedema, Pfaller, et al., 2015). In addition, Smedema et al. (2014) examined CSE and hope theory in people with spinal cord injury. Their results revealed that CSE was found to be correlated with life satisfaction in people with spinal cord injury.

Social Support

There are several widely accepted definitions of social support. Costa and colleagues (2012) defined social support as the social network where an individual interacts and maintains contact with others (Costa et al., 2012). It can also be conceptualized as “coping assistance” that helps individuals shield the adverse effects of stressful situations (Thoits, 1986). Strom and Savage (2014) conducted a longitudinal study to evaluate the relationship between social support and goal persistence in a sample of first-year college students. They reported that the support of family and friends was positively associated with goal persistence. Grey et al. (2020) examined the role of perceived social support pertaining to a range of psychological health outcomes in surveying a large sample of people (N = 2,020) undergoing social isolation and social distancing during COVID-19. The findings of this study showed that the risk for elevated levels of depression symptoms was 63% lower in individuals who reported higher levels of social support compared with those with low perceived social support. Moreover, Szkody & McKinney (2020) examined the role of perception and reception of social support on the psychological health of college students during the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings of this study further support the positive relationship between the social support and the psychological health of college students during periods of stress.

Subjective Well-Being

Subjective well-being (SWB) is defined as an individual’s cognitive and affective evaluations of the quality of their lives (Diener et al., 1985). To assess SWB, the five-item version of the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) is frequently used in positive psychology research (Diener et al., 1985). Diener and Diener (1996) conducted a now-classic study and provided evidence to suggest that in 86% of the 43 examined nations, the average SWB was higher than neutral. Zacher and Rudolph (2021) examined the influence of COVID-19 pandemic on the SWB of 979 individuals in Germany and reported that the COVID-19 pandemic represents major emotional, social, and financial challenges, but also has a psychological dimension associated with declines in key facets of individuals’ SWB.

Purpose of the Study

Transitioning from the regimented environment of military service to a less structured college lifestyle can be stressful and challenging for student veterans with and without disabilities, especially for first-generation student veterans (Umucu, 2017). Recently, more research has been started to examine well-being and psychosocial characteristics in veterans, including student veterans (e.g., Umucu, Lee, et al., 2021; Umucu, Lo, et al., 2021; Umucu, Villegas, et al., 2021). To extend these efforts, we completed this study to examine the role of positive person-environment contextual factors as protective factors that can reduce the influence of perceived stress on the SWB of student veterans with and without disabilities.

The following research questions guided our empirical investigation:

Research Question 1: Is there a relationship between perceived stress and SWB in a sample of student veterans with and without disabilities?

Research Question 2: Is the relationship between perceived stress and SWB mediated by hope, resilience, CSE, and social support in a sample of student veterans with and without disabilities?

Method

Participants

Participants in the present study were 205 student veterans. The sample was composed of 147 males (71.7%), 57 females (27.8%), and 1 not indicated (0.5%). The age of participants ranged from 18 to 64 years (M = 29.32, SD = 8.02). The mean age of participants was 29.32 years (SD =8.02), and 80.5% of participants identified as White, 10.2% Hispanic/Latino, 2.9% African American, 2.4% bi-racial, 1.5% Asian, and 2.5% Other. Forty percent served in the Army, followed by the Air Force (22.4%), Marine Corps (20.5%), Navy (16.6%), and Coast Guard (0.5%). Thirty-nine percent of participants had service-connected disabilities.

Measures

Hope

The Trait Hope Scale (THS; Snyder et al., 1991) was used to measure hope. It is composed of 12 items with two subscales: (a) pathways thoughts (e.g., “I can think of many ways to get out of a jam”); and (b) agency thoughts (e.g., “I meet the goals that I set for myself”). Each item is rated on an 8-point rating scale ranging from 1 (definitely false) to 8 (definitely true). The internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) coefficients for THS ranged from .74 to .84 in previous research (Snyder et al., 1991). Construct validity for THS is supported by predictable relationships with similar instruments such as Scheier and Carver’s Life Orientation Test (Snyder et al., 1991). The THS had a Cronbach’s alpha of .85 in this study.

Resilience

The Brief Resilience Scale (BRS; Smith et al., 2008) was used to assess resilience. It is composed of three positive valence items (e.g., “It does not take me long to recover from stressful events”) and three negative valence items (e.g., “I have a hard time making it through stressful events”). Each item is rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Negative valence items are reverse-scored, and item ratings are averaged with higher scores indicating higher levels of resilience. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranged from .80 to .91, with test–retest reliability reported from .61 to .69 (Smith et al., 2008). The BRS had a Cronbach’s alpha of .85 in this study.

Core self-evaluations

The Core Self-Evaluations Scale (CSES) was used to assess CSE (Judge et al., 2003). The CSES is composed of 12 items (e.g., “I determine what will happen in my life”), and each item is rated on a 5-point scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). CSE scores are calculated by averaging the ratings on all 12 items, with higher scores representing greater levels of CSE. The CSES significantly correlates with job satisfaction, job performance, and life satisfaction, with internal consistency reliability estimates ranging from .81 to .87 (Judge et al., 2003). The CSES had a Cronbach’s alpha of .91 in this study.

Social support

The Oslo Social Support Scale (OSSS-3; Kocalevent et al., 2018) was used to assess social support. The OSSS-3 is composed of three items. The help from the neighbor item (“How easy can you get help from neighbors if you should need it?”) is rated on a 5-point rating scale from 1 (very easy) to 5 (very difficult). The people you can count on item (“How many people are so close to you that you can count on them if you have serious problems?”) is quantified using four categories (none, 1–2, 3–5, 5+). The concern item (“How much concern do people show in what you are doing?”) is rated using a 5-point rating scale from 1 (a lot) to 5 (no). The internal consistency reliability coefficient was .64, which was satisfactory for a brief scale such as the OSSS-3 (Kocalevent et al., 2018). The OSSS-3 had a Cronbach’s alpha of .70 in this study.

Subjective well-being

The Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985) was used to assess SWB. The SWLS is composed of five items designed to measure global cognitive judgments of one’s life satisfaction. Each item is rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree) with a total score ranging from 5 to 35. Higher scores indicate higher levels of life satisfaction (Diener et al., 1985). A Cronbach’s alpha of .87 and a test–retest reliability of .82 were reported by Diener and colleagues (1985). The SWLS had a Cronbach’s alpha of .90 in this study.

Perceived stress

The Perceived Stress Scale–4 (PSS-4; Cohen et al., 1983) is a four-item scale measuring perceived stress (e.g., “In the last month, how often have you felt that you were unable to control the important things in your life?”). Each scale item is rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (very often). Higher scores are indicative of higher levels of stress. The Cronbach’s alpha for the PSS-4 was reported to be .72 (Cohen et al., 1983). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient calculated in the present study was .74.

Procedure

This study is a part of larger dissertation study (Umucu, 2017). Student veterans were recruited from several colleges and universities across the United States upon receipt of Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval. Directors of veteran student service programs were contacted to recruit student veterans to participate in the present study. An email with information about the project was sent to student veterans using an email list provided by directors of veteran student services. Data collection occurred via Qualtrics, an online survey platform. Participants received a $15 gift card as an incentive to complete and return the survey.

Data Analysis

The SPSS 24.0 for Windows was used for the preliminary analyses of descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients. The PROCESS macro for SPSS, written by Andrew Hayes (2020), was used to estimate the total, direct, and indirect effects. It was also used to implement the bootstrap testing approach recommended by Hayes (2018) to test the mediation hypothesis. A parallel multiple mediation analysis was computed to evaluate hope, resilience, CSE, and social support as parallel mediators of the relationship between perceived stress and SWB. Parallel mediation assumes there are more than one variable mediating the relationship between an independent and dependent variable (Kane & Ashbaugh, 2017).

Results

Descriptive Statistics

The means, standard deviations, and the correlation matrix for variables in the hypothesized mediational model is shown in Table 1.

Table 1.

Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations for the Predictor Variable, Mediators, and the Outcome Variable.

Variable	1	2	3	4	5	6
1. Subjective well-being	—	−.62**	.53**	.45**	.68**	.46**
2. Perceived stress		—	−.53**	−.54**	−.71**	−.43**
3. Hope			—	.56**	.71**	.37**
4. Resilience				—	.62**	.38**
5. Core self-evaluations					—	.47**
6. Social support						—
Mean	23.14	1.49	3.27	3.70	23.14	9.12
Standard deviation	7.15	0.84	0.48	0.79	7.15	2.51
Reliability	.90	.74	.85	.85	.91	.70

p < .05. **p < .01.

The average rating for perceived stress was 1.49 (SD = 0.84); 3.27 (SD = 0.48) for hope; 3.70 (SD = 0.79) for resilience; 3.65 (SD = 0.77) for CSE. The total score for social support was 9.12 (SD = 2.51). The average score for perceived stress indicates a moderate level of stress. The average ratings also indicate a moderate level of hope, resilience, and CSE. The total SWB score was 23.14 (SD = 7.15), indicating a slight satisfaction with life.

Parallel Mediation Analysis

Results from the correlational analysis indicated robust relationships among the predictor, mediators, and the outcome variable (see Table 1). A parallel mediation analysis was computed to evaluate hope, resilience, CSE, and social support as parallel mediators for the relationship between perceived stress and SWB in a sample of student veterans. A graphical representation of this model and information on the standardized path coefficients are presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

A parallel mediation analysis of the effect of perceived stress on subjective well-being.

The parallel mediation model accounted for 52% of the variance in SWB, R = .72, R² = .52, F(5, 199) = 42.88, p < .001, f² = 1.08, which is a large effect size (Cohen, 1988).

Total effect

As observed in Figure 1, perceived stress was negatively associated with SWB, c = −.62, p < .01, 95% confidence interval (CI) [−.73, −.51].

Direct effects

The relationship between perceived stress and each mediator was assessed. Perceived stress was inversely related to hope a₁ = −.53, p < .01, 95% CI [−.65, −.41]; resilience a₂ = −.54, p < .01, 95% CI [−65, −.42]; CSE a₃ = −.71, p < .01, 95% CI [−80, −.61], and social support a₄ = −.43, p < .001, 95% CI [−.55, −.30].

The relationship between each of the mediators and SWB, controlling for perceived stress was assessed: CSE (b₃ = −.38, p < .01) and social support (b₄ = −.15, p < .05). These coefficients indicate a significant association with SWB after controlling for hope, resilience, and perceived stress in the parallel mediation model. Although the zero-order correlations among hope, resilience, and SWB were significant, their effects on well-being dissipate in the presence of other variables in the mediation model.

The total effect between perceived stress and SWB was significant = (−.62, p < .01). The direct effect between perceived stress and SWB maintained significance after controlling for the effect of the mediators (cʹ = −.25, p < .01), indicating that although these mediators significantly reduced the influence of perceived stress (from .62 to .25), these mediators only partially mediated the effect of perceived stress on SWB.

Indirect effects

The indirect effects of perceived stress on SWB through hope, resilience, CSE, and social support were also estimated. The specific indirect effects are considered statistically significant if the bias-corrected bootstrap CIs for the products of these paths do not include zero (Hayes, 2018). Using the PROCESS procedure with 5,000 bootstrap samples revealed a significant indirect effect of perceived stress on SWB through CSE (point estimate = −.27, 95% CI [−.40, −.15]), and through social support (point estimate =−.06, 95% CI [−11, −.02]).

Discussion

The COVID-19 pandemic has a significant influence on college students, as they are experiencing high levels of stress and anxiety that can affect both their physical and mental health (Son et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020). The current study aimed to examine the role of positive person-environment contextual protective factors that can reduce the adverse effects of perceived stress on SWB of student veterans with and without disabilities. This study contributes to the counseling literature identifying protective factors that can reduce the influence of perceived stress, depression, and anxiety levels of college students—especially student veterans—during and after the COVID-19 pandemic.

Previous research has suggested that perceived stress and psychological well-being are negatively correlated among college students (Bergin & Pakenham, 2016; Chao, 2012). More specifically, a study conducted by Williston and Roemer (2017) demonstrated an inverse relationship between psychological distress and quality of life in student service members and veteran college students. The current study supports previous findings that perceived stress was negatively associated with SWB in a sample of student veterans with and without disabilities.

Furthermore, the findings of this study revealed that CSE and social support significantly reduced the effect of perceived stress on the SWB of student veterans with and without disabilities. Our finding is consistent with previous research that found CSE and life satisfaction had a positive association, where college students with high CSE were better at coping with stress and building social support than their counterparts with low CSE (Smedema, Chan, et al., 2015). Previous research also found that CSE partially mediated the relationship between functional disability and life satisfaction in college students with disabilities (Smedema, Pfaller, et al., 2015). Furthermore, individuals with high CSE may perceive stressful life events as less threatening, which may enhance well-being (Rey & Extremera, 2015). In addition, social support plays a critical role in college student’s stress-coping process and college life transition (Rayle & Chung, 2007). For instance, college students with high social support were more likely to utilize positive coping, leading to higher psychological well-being (Liu et al., 2016). In another study, college students with higher social support were more likely to report greater self-esteem, which contributes to enhanced life evaluations and well-being (Kong et al., 2013).

In addition, previous studies have found a positive relationship between hope and resilience and SWB in college student samples (Mak et al., 2011; Rand et al., 2020; Umucu et al., 2019). Their findings are consistent with the findings of this study. Although hope and resilience had a significant association with SWB, the effect of hope and resilience as buffer variables between perceived stress and SWB dissipated in the presence of perceived stress, CSE, and social support. This finding suggested that only CSE and social support were mediators for the relationship between perceived stress and SWB in student veterans with and without disabilities. In addition, hope, resilience, CSE, and social support did not completely mediate the relationship between perceived stress and SWB, indicating there may be additional positive psychology variables that may contribute to reducing the influence of stress on SWB (e.g., positive cognitive stress appraisal and coping flexibility).

Clinical Implications

This study provides additional empirical evidence to show that enhancing CSE and social support may help student veterans with and without disabilities better cope with stress and enhance their well-being. Increasing self-esteem, emotional stability, generalized self-efficacy, and internal locus of control are essential to elevate CSE. In addition, strengthening hope and resilience complements training in self-esteem, emotional stability, self-efficacy, and locus of control. These interventions can improve the SWB of student veterans with or without disabilities during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Strategies to increase CSE

Although there is no direct CSE intervention, different psychosocial strategies and interventions can improve the four CSE traits (Smedema, Chan, et al., 2015; Lee, 2020; Lee et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2022). First, self-esteem can be enhanced through strengthening college students’ coping abilities (Smedema, Pfaller, et al., 2015). Second, self-efficacy can be improved by helping college students identify and achieve an attainable goal. This strategy could also facilitate both their life and academic skill development (Smedema et al., 2021; Smedema, Pfaller et al., 2015). Third, providing emotional support (e.g., empathy, perspective-taking) and including brief intervention on emotional regulation skills can strengthen the emotional stability of college students (McKinley, 2013; Williston & Roemer, 2017). Fourth, integrating exercises focusing on personal responsibility for success can help students learn autonomously and believe that their academic success is within their control (Gifford et al., 2006). By utilizing these strategies and exercises, clinicians (e.g., rehabilitation counselors), university counselors, faculty, instructors, and staff members can augment student veterans’ CSE and help student veterans with and without disabilities more effectively manage stress and promote their well-being.

Strategies to increase social support

Transition into higher education can be especially stressful for student veterans with and without disabilities. Student veterans organizations and peer-based veteran-specific social support programs can act as supportive networks helping student veterans with and without disabilities better cope with challenges and stressors associated with the COVID pandemic and college life adjustment, as well as improve their health and well-being.

During the pandemic, people had limited access to their social support systems; this phenomenon may be especially problematic for student veterans with and without disabilities. Given our findings indicate that social support is a mediators for the relationship between perceived stress and the SWB, we believe social support in student veterans should be supported. In addition, social support can be enhanced by supporting student veterans in social interactions, such as leisure activities with family and friends (Eakman et al., 2019). During the pandemic, informational support is equally important to emotional support. To achieve this, a counselor may provide accurate information regarding COVID-19 and financial aid issues (e.g., the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security [CARES Act]) related to the pandemic as a proxy for informational support. In addition, rehabilitation counselors and university counselors can encourage student veterans to participate in student veteran organizations and facilitate their social engagement.

Strategies to increase hope and resilience

Improving hope and resilience levels may complement the development of CSE and social support among student veterans with and without disabilities (Umucu, 2017). A single-session hope intervention was demonstrated to increase hope in the short term and greater levels of goal progress after 1 month in college students (Feldman & Dreher, 2012). In addition, Chan et al. (2013) reported micro-counseling techniques to help clients increase their belief and ability to rewrite their life stories, increasing their hope levels. Because resilience serves as a protective factor for stress in veterans, resilience training can be integrated into transition assistance programs. This approach usually involves a multidimensional approach and integrates positive psychology principles (Castillo et al., 2019). In addition, Reyes et al. (2020) discussed that student veterans demonstrated improved resilience after participating in an acceptance-and-commitment-therapy (ACT) app that included exercises such as Observing Self and Being Mindful of Feelings. ACT exercises were derived from ACT workbooks. As a result, rehabilitation counselors and university counselors can integrate hope and resilience interventions to promote hope and resilience in student veterans with and without disabilities (Umucu, Moser, & Bezyak, 2020).

Limitations

There are several limitations to be considered. First, given the nature of a self-reported survey design, social desirability, and response biases could have been introduced. Second, this study included a cross-sectional sample of student veterans with mostly White participants, limiting the generalizability of the study’s findings. The study also used a quantitative descriptive design to explore the possible relationships among the variables, suggesting that causal inferences cannot be concluded. Longitudinal studies would be warranted to examine the mediating relationships between perceived stress and SWB in this model. Future studies can also examine other positive person-environment contextual factors (e.g., optimism, positive cognitive stress appraisal, coping flexibility, and environmental supports) as protective factors that can mitigate the adverse effect of stress on well-being in student veterans. We also wanted to note that we did not use disability status as a moderator or confounding variable. Future studies may consider using this variable as a moderator. Resilience, hope, and CSE required participants to evaluate their perceptions of themselves as an internal evaluation; the OSSS asked participants to evaluate the external support of others. Finally, our data were not collected during the pandemic; however, we provided some interpretation on how the pandemic may have changed the social support and the SWB in student veterans. Therefore, future studies should replicate this study findings by collecting new data.

Conclusion

Mental health, employment, and education are some of the key factors in well-being, community integration, and quality of life for both civilians and veterans with and without disabilities (Umucu, Chan, et al., 2022; Umucu, Lee, 2021; Umucu, Lo, et al., 2022; Umucu, Reyes, Nay, et al., 2021). This study, like our studies on well-being in veterans (e.g., Umucu, 2021), provides insights into understanding well-being and its associates in student veterans with and without disabilities. The findings suggested that CSE and social support partially mediated the relationship between perceived stress and SWB in student veterans with and without disabilities. Our mediation analysis findings provide implications for clinicians (e.g., rehabilitation counselors), university counselors, and university staff to support student veterans with and without disabilities and provide effective positive psychology strategies that can help them more successfully manage stress and improve their well-being during their higher education experience.

Footnotes

Authors’ Note

Xiangli Chen is now affiliated with the Kessler Foundation, USA.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The contents of this article were developed with support from the Rehabilitation Research and Training Center (RRTC) on Employment of People with Physical Disabilities. The RRTC was funded by the National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research Grant H133B13001 to Virginia Commonwealth University.

ORCID iD

Beatrice Lee

References

American Psychological Association. (2012). Building your resilience. https://www.apa.org/topics/resilience#

Bergin

A. J.

Pakenham

K. I.

(2016). The stress-buffering role of mindfulness in the relationship between perceived stress and psychological adjustment. Mindfulness, 7(4), 928–939. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0532-x

Castillo

E. A.

Mason

D’Addario

Chow

G. M.

Tenenbaum

(2019). Resilience and veteran community reintegration: An exploratory study. Military Behavioral Health, 7(4), 391–400. https://doi.org/10.1080/21635781.2018.1534702

Catalano

Chan

Wilson

Chiu

C. Y.

Muller

V. R.

(2011). The buffering effect of resilience on depression among individuals with spinal cord injury: A structural equation model. Rehabilitation Psychology, 56(3), 200–211. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024571

Cate

C. A.

(2014). Million records project: Research from Student Veterans of America. Student Veterans of America. https://studentveterans.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/mrp_Full_report.pdf

Chan

Y. C.

Chan

Ditchman

Phillips

Chou

C. C.

(2013). Evaluating Snyder’s hope theory as a motivational model of participation and life satisfaction for individuals with spinal cord injury: A path analysis. Rehabilitation Research, Policy, and Education, 27, 171–185. https://connect.springerpub.com/content/sgrrrpe/27/3/171

Chao

R. C. L.

(2012). Managing perceived stress among college students: The roles of social support and dysfunctional coping. Journal of College Counseling, 15, 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1882.2012.00002.x

Cohen

(1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed). Erlbaum.

Cohen

Kamarck

Mermelstein

(1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404

10.

Committee on the Assessment of Resiliency Prevention Programs for Mental Behavioral Health in Service Members Their Families; Board on the Health of Select Populations; Institute of Medicine; Denning

L. A.

Meisnere

Warner

K. E

., editors. Preventing Psychological Disorders in Service Members Their Families: An Assessment of Programs. (2014, February 11). A summary from returning home from Iraq and Afghanistan: Assessment of readjustment needs of service members and their families. National Academies Press. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK222176/

11.

Costa

D. C.

Sá

M. J.

Calheiros

J. M.

(2012). The effect of social support on the quality of life of patients with multiple sclerosis. Arquivos De Neuro-Psiquiatria, 70, 108–113. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0004-282x2012000200007

12.

Diener

(1996). Most people are happy. Psychological Science, 7(3), 181–185.

13.

Diener

Emmons

R. A.

Larsen

R. J.

Griffin

(1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.

14.

Dutcher

J. M.

Creswell

J. D.

(2018). The role of brain reward pathways in stress resilience and health. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 95, 559–567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.10.014

15.

Dyer

J. G.

McGuinness

T. M.

(1996). Resilience: Analysis of the concept. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 10(5), 276–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-9417(96)80036-7

16.

Eakman

A. M.

Kinney

A. R.

Reinhardt

(2019). Participation, meaningful activity, and social support among US student service members/veterans. OTJR: Occupation, Participation and Health, 39(4), 222–231. https://doi.org/10.1177/1539449219833351

17.

Feldman

D. B.

Dreher

D. E.

(2012). Can hope be changed in 90 minutes? Testing the efficacy of a single-session goal-pursuit intervention for college students. Journal of Happiness Studies, 13, 745–759. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-011-9292-4

18.

Fryers

(2006). Work, identity and health. Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health, 2(12), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1745-0179-2-12. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1501011/pdf/1745-0179-2-12.pdf

19.

Gifford

D. D.

Briceno-Perriott

Mianzo

(2006). Locus of control: Academic achievement and retention in a sample of university first-year students. Journal of College Admission, 191, 18–25. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ741521

20.

Grey

Arora

Thomas

Saneh

Tohme

Abi-Habiba

(2020). The role of perceived social support on depression and sleep during the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychiatric Research, 293, Article 113452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113452

21.

Hayes

A. F.

(2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

22.

Hayes

A. F.

(2020). The PROCESS for SPSS, SAS, and R. http://www.processmacro.org/download.html

23.

Helliwell

J. F.

Layard

Sachs

J. D.

De Neve

(2020). World happiness report 2020. https://happiness-report.s3.amazonaws.com/2020/WHR20.pdf

24.

Judge

T. A.

Erez

Bono

J. E.

Locke

E. A.

(2005). Core self-evaluations and job and life satisfaction: The role of self-concordance and goal attainment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(2), 257–268. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.2.257

25.

Judge

T. A.

Erez

Bono

J. E.

Thoresen

C. J.

(2003). The Core Self-Evaluations Scale: Development of a measure. Personnel Psychology, 56(2), 303–331. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2003.tb00152.x

26.

Judge

T. A.

Locke

E. A.

Durham

C. C.

Kluger

A. N.

(1998). Dispositional effects on job and life satisfaction: The role of core evaluations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(1), 17–34. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.83

27.

Julian

Kominski

(2011). Education and synthetic work-life earnings estimates. American Community Survey Reports, ACS-14. U.S. Census Bureau.

28.

Kamerāde

Wang

Burchell

Balderson

S. U.

Coutts

(2019). A shorter working week for everyone: How much paid work is needed for mental health and well-being? Social Science & Medicine, 241, Article 112353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.06.006

29.

Kane

Ashbaugh

A. R.

(2017). Simple and parallel mediation: A tutorial exploring anxiety sensitivity, sensation seeking, and gender. The Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 13(3), 148–165.

30.

Kena

Aud

Johnson

Wang

Zhang

Rathbun

, et al (2014). The condition of education 2014 (NCES 2014-083). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch

31.

Kocalevent

R. D.

Berg

Beutel

Hinz

(2018). Social support in the general population: Standardization of the Oslo social support scale (OSSS-3). BMC Psychology, 6, Article 31. https://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40359-018-0249-9

32.

Kong

Zhao

You

(2013). Self-esteem as mediator and moderator of the relationship between social support and subjective well-being among Chinese university students. Social Indicators Research, 112(1), 151–161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-012-0044-6

33.

Lee

Y. P. B.

(2020). Protective person-environment factors as mediators between functional disability and stress in individuals with multiple sclerosis: A parallel mediation model. The University of Wisconsin-Madison.

34.

Lee

Pfaller

Iwanaga

Chen

J. R.

Chan

(2020). Core self-evaluations as a mediator of the relationship between stress and quality of life in women with multiple sclerosis. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 52(2), 137–144.

35.

Lee

Tansey

T. N.

Chan

Bishop

Hoyt

W. T.

Hancock

L. M.

(2022). Exploration of the Effects of Protective Person–Environment Factors Between Functional Impairments and Stress in Individuals With Multiple Sclerosis: Mediation and Moderation Analyses. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 65, 95–107.

36.

Leite

Araújo de Medeiros

A. G.

Rolim

Pinheiro

K. S. C. B.

Beilfuss

de Queiroga

M. F. S.

Hartmann

J. A. S.

(2019). Hope theory and its relation to depression: A systematic review. Annals of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 2(2), Article 1014.

37.

Liu

Ling

Cai

(2016). Core self-evaluations and coping styles as mediators between social support and well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 88, 35–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.08.044

38.

Mak

W. W.

I. S.

Wong

C. C.

(2011). Resilience: Enhancing well-being through the positive cognitive triad. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(4), 610–617. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025195

39.

McKinley

(2013). Applying a distress-deterring approach to examine how emotional support predicts perceived stress and stress-related coping response. Southern Communication Journal, 78(5), 387–404. https://doi.org/10.1080/1041794X.2013.839737

40.

Menard

(2017). Social stress induces neurovascular pathology promoting depression. Nature Neuroscience, 20(12), 1752–1760. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-017-0010-3

41.

Moser

Chan

Berven

N. L.

Bezyak

Iwanaga

Umucu

(2020). Resilience and life satisfaction in young adults with epilepsy: The role of person-environment contextual factors. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 52(2), 157–171. https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-191067

42.

Newman

P. A.

Woodford

M. R.

Logie

(2011). HIV vaccine acceptability and culturally appropriate dissemination among sexually diverse Aboriginal peoples in Canada. Global Public Health, 7(1), 87–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2010.549139

43.

Rand

K. L.

Shanahan

M. L.

Fischer

I. C.

Fortney

S. K.

(2020). Hope and optimism as predictors of academic performance and subjective well-being in college students. Learning and Individual Differences, 81, Article 101906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101906

44.

Rayle

A. D.

Chung

K. Y.

(2007). Revisiting first-year college students’ mattering: Social support, academic stress, and the mattering experience. Journal of College Student Retention, 9, 21–37. https://doi.org/10.2190/X126-5606-4G36-8132

45.

Rey

Extremera

(2015). Core self-evaluations, perceived stress and life satisfaction in Spanish young and middle-aged adults: An examination of mediation and moderation effects. Social Indicators Research, 120(2), 515–524. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-014-0601-2

46.

Reyes

A. T.

Muthukumar

Bhatta

T. R.

Bombard

J. N.

Gangozo

W. J.

(2020). Promoting resilience among college student veterans through an acceptance-and-commitment-therapy app: An intervention refinement study. Community Mental Health Journal, 56(7), 1206–1214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-020-00617-4

47.

Ring

Jacoby

Baker

G. A.

Marson

Whitehead

M. M.

(2016). Does the concept of resilience contribute to understanding good quality of life in the context of epilepsy? Epilepsy and Behavior, 56, 153–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2016.01.002

48.

Smedema

S. M.

Chan

Wang

M. H.

Umucu

Yasui

N. Y.

W. M.

Ditchman

Wang

C. C.

(2016). Psychometric validation of the Taiwanese version of the Job Satisfaction of Persons with Disabilities Scale in a sample of individuals with poliomyelitis. Australian Journal of Rehabilitation Counseling, 22(1), 27–39. https://doi.org/10.1017/jrc.2016.1

49.

Smedema

S. M.

Chan

Yaghmaian

R. A.

Cardoso

E. D.

Muller

Keegan

Dutta

Ebener

D. J.

(2015). The relationship of core self-evaluations and life satisfaction in college students with disabilities: Evaluation of a mediator model. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 28(3), 341–358. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1083840.pdf

50.

Smedema

S. M.

Chan

J. Y.

Phillips

B. N.

(2014). Core self-evaluations and Snyder’s hope theory in persons with spinal cord injuries. Rehabilitation Psychology, 59(4), 399–406. https://doi.org/10.1037/rep0000015

51.

Smedema

S. M.

Lee

Bhattarai

(2021). An examination of the relationship of core self-evaluations and life satisfaction in college students with disabilities. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 65(2), 129–139. https://doi.org/10.1177/0034355221993569

52.

Smedema

S. M.

Pfaller

J. S.

Yaghmaian

R. A.

Weaver

Cardoso

Chan

(2015). Core self-evaluations as a mediator between functional disability and life satisfaction in college students with disabilities majoring in science and technology. Rehabilitation Research, Policy, and Education, 29(1), 96–104. https://doi.org/10.1891/2168-6653.29.1.96

53.

Smith

B. W.

Dalen

Wiggins

Tooley

Christopher

Bernard

(2008). The Brief Resilience Scale: Assessing the ability to bounce back. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15(3), 194–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705500802222972

54.

Snyder

C. R.

(2000). Handbook of hope: Theory, measures, and applications. Academic Press.

55.

Snyder

C. R.

Irving

L. M.

Anderson

J. R.

(1991). Hope and health. In Snyder

C. R.

Forsyth

D. R.

(Eds.), Handbook of social and clinical psychology: The health perspective (pp. 285–305). Pergamon Press.

56.

Snyder

C. R.

Lehman

K. A.

Kluck

Monsson

(2006). Hope for rehabilitation and vice versa. Rehabilitation Psychology, 51(2), 89–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/0090-5550.51.2.89

57.

Son

Hegde

Smith

Wang

Sasangohar

(2020). Effects of COVID-19 on college students’ mental health in the United States: Interview survey study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(9), Article e21279. https://doi.org/10.2196/21279

58.

Strom

R. E.

Savage

M. W.

(2014). Assessing the relationships between perceived support from close others, goal commitment, and persistence decisions at the college level. Journal of College Student Development, 55, 531–547. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2014.0064

59.

Szkody

McKinney

(2020). Appraisal and social support as moderators between stress and physical and psychological quality of life. Stress and Health, 36, 586–595. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2957

60.

Tamborini

C. R.

Kim

C. H.

Sakamoto

(2015). Education and lifetime earnings in the United States. Demography, 52(4), 1383–1407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-015-0407-0

61.

Tansey

T. N.

Smedema

Umucu

Iwanaga

J. R.

Cardoso

E. D. S.

Strauser

(2018). Assessing college life adjustment of students with disabilities: Application of the PERMA framework. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 61(3), 131–142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-015-0407-0

62.

Thoits

P. A.

(1986). Social support as coping assistance. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54(4), 416–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.54.4.416

63.

Umucu

(2017). Evaluating optimism, hope, resilience, coping flexibility, secure attachment, and PERMA as a well-being model for college life adjustment of student veterans: A hierarchical regression analysis. The University of Wisconsin-Madison.

64.

Umucu

(2021). Examining the structure of the PERMA theory of well-being in veterans with mental illnesses. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 64(4), 244–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/0034355220957093

65.

Umucu

Brooks

J. M.

Lee

Iwanaga

J. R.

Chen

Chan

(2018). Measuring dispositional optimism in student Veterans: An item response theory analysis. Military Psychology, 30(6), 590–597. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2018.1522161

66.

Umucu

Chan

Lee

Brooks

J. M.

Reyes

Mangadu

. . . Ferreira-Pinto

(2022). Well-being, PTSD, college adjustment in student veterans with and without disabilities. Frontiers in Education. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2021.793286/abstract

67.

Umucu

Grenawalt

T. A.

Reyes

Tansey

Brooks

Lee

Gleason

Chan

(2019). Flourishing in student veterans with and without service-connected disability: Psychometric validation of the flourishing scale and exploration of its relationships with personality and disability. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 63(1), 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/0034355218808061

68.

Umucu

Lee

Iwanaga

Kosyluk

Blake

Bezyak

Chan

(2021). Relationships between positive human traits and PERMA (positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishments) in student veterans with and without disabilities: A canonical correlation analysis. Rehabilitation Research, Policy, and Education, 35(3), 238–247. https://connect.springerpub.com/content/sgrrrpe/35/3/238

69.

Umucu

C. L.

Lee

Vargas-Medrano

Diaz-Pacheco

Misra

. . . Gadad

B. S.

(2022). Is gratitude associated with suicidal ideation in veterans with mental illness and student veterans with PTSD symptoms? The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 210(1), 26–31. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000001406

70.

Umucu

Moser

Bezyak

(2020). Assessing hope in student veterans. Journal of College Student Development, 61(1), 115–120. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2020.0008

71.

Umucu

Reyes

Carrola

Mangadu

Lee

Brookes

J. M.

. . . Valencia

(2021). Pain intensity and mental health quality of life in veterans with mental illnesses: The intermediary role of physical health and the ability to participate in activities. Quality of Life Research, 30, 479–486. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-020-02642-y

72.

Umucu

Reyes

Nay

Elbogen

Tsai

(2021). Associations between mental health and job loss among middle-and low-income veterans and civilians during the COVID-19 pandemic: An exploratory study. Stress and Health. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3099

73.

Umucu

Villegas

Viramontes

Jung

Lee

(2021). Measuring grit in veterans with mental illnesses: Examining the model structure of grit. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 44(1), 87–92. https://doi.org/10.1037/prj0000420

74.

Umucu

J. R.

Sanchez

Brooks

J. M.

Chiu

C. Y.

W. M.

Chan

(2020). Psychometric validation of the PERMA-profiler as a well-being measure for student veterans. Journal of American College Health, 68(3), 271–277. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2018.1546182

75.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2020). The Economy Daily (TED: Unemployment rate 2.0 percent for college grads, 3.8 percent for high school grads in January 2020. https://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2020/unemployment-rate-2-percent-for-college-grads-3-8-percent-for-high-school-grads-in-january-2020.htm?view_full

76.

Wang

Hegde

Son

Keller

Smith

Sasangohar

(2020). Investigating mental health of US college students during the COVID-19 pandemic: Cross-sectional survey study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(9), Article e22817. https://doi.org/10.2196/22817

77.

Williston

S. K.

Roemer

(2017). Predictors of well-being in the lives of student service members and veterans. Journal of American College Health, 65, 404–412. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2017.1341891

78.

Wurster

K. G.

Rinaldi

A. P.

Woods

T. S.

Liu

W. M.

(2013). First-generation student veterans: Implications of poverty for psychotherapy. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69(2), 127–137. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.21952

79.

Zacher

Rudolph

C. W.

(2021). Individual differences and changes in subjective wellbeing during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic. American Psychologist, 76(1), 50–62. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000702