Service-Connected Disability and Happiness in Student Veterans: A Parallel Mediation Study of PERMA

Abstract

The student veteran population has been growing in higher education, along with the attention to their happiness and well-being. Seligman developed the positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment (PERMA) model to help understand an individual’s happiness, including five pillars: Positive emotion, Engagement, Relationship, Meaning, and Accomplishment. In this study, we aim at evaluating the role of the PERMA model’s five pillars in explaining the relationship between service-connected disability and happiness. Data were collected from 205 student veterans. The result demonstrated that positive emotion and accomplishment mediated the relationship between service-connected disability and happiness. The findings of this study suggest utilizing positive psychology to help student veterans improve happiness, as well as engage in more activities that could potentially increase an individual’s positive emotion and accomplishment, and eventually increase the level of happiness.

Keywords

health and well-being positive psychology

The traditional focus of disability is on disorders, suffering, and treatment (Dunn & Dougherty, 2005). Yet, disability should not always be represented in negative and insufficient terms (Sunderland et al., 2009). Highlighting negativity, functional limitations, and deficits in the portrayals of disability may cause people with disabilities to become the object of pity and prejudice (Dunn et al., 2009). Emphasizing positive psychological traits to promote happiness in individuals with disabilities can further benefit rehabilitation research, clinical practice, and consumer experiences (Chou et al., 2013; Dunn & Dougherty, 2005). Therefore, rehabilitation researchers and practitioners have been advocating for a paradigm shift from examining deficits in disability to focusing on positive psychosocial factors, including happiness (Chou et al., 2013; Dunn & Dougherty, 2005; Dunn et al., 2009; Fortuna et al., 2020; Huck et al., 2022; Grenawalt et al., 2022; Lee, 2022; Lee, Rumrill, et al., 2022; Lee, Rumril, Tansey, 2022; Moser et al., 2020; Phillips et al., 2022; Sánchez et al., 2019; Umucu, Lee, Berwick, et al., 2022; Umucu, Reyes, Carrola, et al., 2021; Umucu, Tansey, et al., 2021; Umucu, Wu, et al., 2020).

Disability and Happiness

Chronic medical conditions and disabilities are associated with decreased happiness and well-being in civilians, veterans, and student veterans (Koenen et al., 2008; Lee, 2022; Lee & Chan, 2022; Lucas, 2007; Terrill et al., 2015; Umucu, 2021a; Umucu, Lee, et al., 2021; Umucu, Lo, et al., 2022; Wilson et al., 2013). For instance, two nationally representative longitudinal studies showed that individuals who acquired disability reported moderate to significant drops in happiness (Lucas, 2007). A similar result was found in Marinić and Brkljačić’s (2008) study, which compared levels of happiness among individuals with and without physical disability. The results demonstrated that happiness levels in persons with physical disability were significantly lower than those without physical disability (Marinić & Brkljačić, 2008). Koenen and colleagues (2008) examined the longitudinal association between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and multiple domains of life functioning in veterans. The PTSD was found to be significantly associated with more problematic family relationships, more unhealthy behaviors, lower levels of life satisfaction and happiness, increased mental health service use, and a greater number of nonspecific health complaints in veterans (Koenen et al., 2008). Specific to student veterans with a service-connected disability found that disability is negatively associated with well-being, college life adjustment, and health-related quality of life (Umucu, 2017; Umucu et al., 2019; Umucu, Chan, et al., 2022).

In the fields of health and rehabilitation, it is suggested that the effects of life events on happiness following disability should be examined (Dunn et al., 2009). Happiness is not a direct response to daily circumstances, but a response mediated by our psychological reactions to those circumstances (Amundson, 2010). Some aspects of happiness after a disability may be relatively immune to interventions, whereas other aspects of happiness offer opportunities to enhance happiness (Dunn et al., 2009). Therefore, to study the relationship between disability and happiness, one needs to determine the mediating factors between the two. Identifying the factors that potentially mediate the relationship between disability and happiness can provide implications for targeted interventions for individuals with disabilities, including student veterans with service-connected disabilities.

Disability Among Student Veterans

According to U.S. Census Bureau (2021), about 47% of veterans received sort of military service-related cash or noncash benefit in 2017. About 20% of all veterans had a VA service-connected disability rating (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). According to the 2020 Student Veterans of American (SVA, 2021) Census Survey, about 65% student veterans stated that they had a VA disability rating and about 4% reported that they were in process of submitting a disability claim. Same document revealed that >50% of student veterans had a 70% or more VA disability rating (SVA, 2021). Service-connected disabilities may be both visible (e.g., amputation) and invisible (e.g., depression) . According to Rudd et al (2011), about 35% of student veterans experienced “severe anxiety,” 24% experienced “severe depression,” and about 46% experienced significant PTSD symptoms.

Service-connected disabilities may have substantial negative impact on student veterans’ social, personal, and academic life (Grenawalt et al., 2022; Umucu, 2022; Umucu et al., 2018; Umucu, Moser, & Bezyak, 2020; Umucu, Rumrill, et al., 2022). Research studies have documented that physical, cognitive, psychiatric, and other type of disabilities and conditions are associated with many academic, emotional, and other health problems in student veterans (e.g., Barry et al., 2012; Elliott et al., 2011; Umucu et al., 2018). For example, Barry and colleagues (2012) revealed that posttraumatic stress symptoms were associated with problem drinking and alcohol-related consequences. Elliott and colleagues (2011) reported functional limitations due to combat exposure increased PTSD symptoms in student veterans. Authors also reported that PTSD symptoms were associated with higher levels of alienation on campus, alcohol problems, and intimate relationship strain among student veterans. Finally, Umucu and colleagues (2018) found that student veterans with a service-connected disability reported lower levels of flourishing scores compared with those without a service-connected disability.

Disability, Happiness, and Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment

The impact of disability on one’s happiness may depend on the relationship between disability and components of happiness since disability might affect various components of happiness in different directions and ways. Increasing attention has been paid to Seligman’s positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment (PERMA) model of happiness and well-being in the fields of health and psychology. Seligman proposed a multidimensional model of happiness and well-being, PERMA, with five core elements: (a) p ositive emotion, which refers to joy, hope, pleasure, and contentment; (b) e ngagement, which refers to the act of becoming highly interested, absorbed, or focused in daily activities; (c) r elationships, which refer to feelings of being cared about by others, authentically connected to others, and secure in those connections; (d) m eaning, refers to a sense of purpose of life derived from something greater than the self; and (e) a ccomplishment, refers to the persistent drive to make progress toward personal goals and having a sense of achievement in one’s life (Butler & Kern, 2016; Seligman, 2011).

The PERMA has been examined as a mediator and outcome variable. One study examined PERMA as a mediator for the relationship between disability and college adjustment in student veterans and reported that PERMA partially mediated the relationship between disability and college adjustment (Umucu, Chan, et al., 2022). In student veterans, one research examined whether pillars of PERMA mediate the relationship between PTSD symptoms and college adjustment and found that only positive emotion and accomplishment mediated the relationship between PTSD and college adjustment (Umucu, Rumrill, et al., 2022). Another study examined whether PERMA mediates the relationship between functioning and life satisfaction in students with disabilities and reported that PERMA mediates the relationship between functioning and life satisfaction (Tansey et al., 2018). Recent research (Goh et al., 2022) examined whether some pillars of PERMA (i.e., engagement, relationships, and meaning) mediate the relationship between positive emotions and accomplishment and found that meaning in life and positive relationships mediated the relationship between positive emotion and accomplishment in >500 working adults recruited from China, Australia, Japan, and Hungary.

Empirical evidence has documented that disability is associated with each of these components: decreased positive emotion, less social engagement, poorer social skills and social support, lack of meaning in life, and less accomplishment (Chan et al., 2009; Smedema et al., 2015; Tansey et al., 2018). Specifically, service-connected disabilities may have a substantial negative impact on student veterans’ emotions, which may eventually affect their overall college adjustment and well-being. Rudd and colleagues (2011) reported that about 46% of student veterans were thinking about suicide. Similarly, Umucu, Lo, et al. (2022) found that student veterans with PTSD symptoms had suicidal ideation. Finally, Umucu, Wu, et al. (2020), in a sample of student veterans with and without disabilities, reported that student Veterans with higher levels of emotional and performance character strengths, conceptualized through the lens of PERMA, had lower levels of loneliness, depression, anxiety, and stress and higher levels of grade point average (GPA), optimism, hope, and resilience.

Purpose of the Study

Postsecondary education may function as a public health and rehabilitation intervention. However, student veterans, one of the fastest-growing student populations in postsecondary education, face unique challenges as compared with their civilian counterparts (Cate, 2013; Kirchner, 2015; Rudd et al., 2011). Previous work explored PERMA as a mediator as well as outcome variable (Umucu, Chan, et al., 2022). This work revealed that PERMA mediates the relationship between disability and college life adjustment. However, this work used total PERMA score and did not examine each specific pillars as mediators. The mechanisms by which the pillars of happiness and well-being (i.e., PERMA) affect the relationship between service-connected disability and happiness in student veterans has not been evaluated in the context of an empirical happiness and well-being theory. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to evaluate to what extent the pillars of Seligman’s happiness and well-being theory can serve as underlying mechanisms to explain the relationship between service-connected disability and happiness in student veterans.

Method

Procedure

The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board. Participants were recruited from U.S. universities and colleges. Convenient sampling method was applied to recruit participants from U.S. universities and colleges. Information about the research project was disseminated electronically to student veterans on each affiliate’s mailing list to recruit research participants. Data were collected via an online survey platform, Qualtrics. Each participant signed an online consent form. Participants were informed of the opportunity to obtain a US$15 gift card via U.S. mail or email if they fully complete survey.

To be eligible for inclusion in the study, participants had to meet the following criteria: (a) at least 18 years or older; (b) retired from active-duty service or a National Guard or Reserve member of the United States Armed Services with active duty service, and (c) currently enrolled in a college or university. A total of 245 student veterans attempted the online survey. Of those surveys, 40 (16.32%) provided incomplete data, so the final study sample included 205 (83.68%) participants.

Sample Characteristics

Participants were 205 student veterans (M_age = 29.3, SD = 8.0). The sample comprised of 147 (71.7%) males and 57 (27.8%) females and was mostly White (80.5%), followed by Hispanic/Latino (10.2%), African American (2.9%), biracial (2.4%), Asian (1.5%), and others (2.5%). Forty percent served in the Army, followed by the Air Force (22.4%), Marine Corps (20.5%), Navy (16.6%), and Coast Guard (0.5%). Thirty-nine percent of participants had service-connected disabilities. Sixty-eight (33.2%) of the participants were from the Ohio State University, followed by 43 (21%) from the University of Wisconsin, 42 (20.5%) from the University of Arizona, 30 (14.6) from the Southern Illinois University, 6 (2.9%) from the Pennsylvania State University, and 7 (2.5%) from other colleges. Nine (4.4%) participants did not identify their university/college.

Measures

Service-Connected Disability

Participants were asked to self-report their service-connected disability ratings, if they have any. We asked participants “Do you have a service-connected disability rating?” This is a dichotomous measure of disability status.

Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment

The PERMA-Profiler (Butler & Kern, 2016) was used to measure positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. The scale consists of 23 items; 15 subscale items that comprise the five pillars of well-being and eight filler items. In this study, only the 15 subscale items were used to measure the five pillars of well-being (each pillar has three items). Each item is rated on an 11-point scale ranging from 0 (never) to 10 (always), or 0 (not at all) to 10 (completely). According to Butler and Kern (2016), the reported internal consistency reliability coefficients ranged from .71 to .89 for positive emotion, .60 to .81 for engagement, .75 to .85 for relationships, .85 to .92 for meaning, and .70 to .86 for accomplishment subscale scores. In a combined sample, the internal consistency reliability has been found to be .94 for total scale, and .88 for positive emotion, .72 for engagement, .82 for relationships, .90 for meaning, and .79 for accomplishment subscale scores. In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was calculated to be .86 for positive emotion, .57 for engagement, .85 for relationship, .92 for meaning, and .81 for accomplishment. This scale was also validated for student Veterans and Veterans with mental illnesses (Umucu, Wu, et al., 2020). Authors reported that PERMA has strong construct, criterion-related, convergent, and divergent validity.

Happiness

The Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS; Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999) was used to measure happiness. The scale consists of four items rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (not a very happy person, or not at all) to 7 (a very happy person, or a great deal). The total score ranges from 7 to 28, with a higher score indicating greater happiness. The Cronbach’s alpha for the SHS ranged from .79 to .94 (Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient calculated in the present study was .89. The scale was found to have convergent, discriminant, and construct validity (Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999).

Data Analysis

In this study, the percent of missing values for independent and dependent variables (DVs) was calculated. None of the scales was missing >2% of the values. So, simple imputation in the SPSS software was used to deal with missing data as the missing data was <5%. Each missing value was replaced with a value imputed by linear regression. A correlation analysis and a parallel mediation analysis using multiple regression were performed in order to investigate PERMA as potential mediators of the relationships between service-connected disability and happiness. According to Hayes (2018), in a parallel multiple mediator model, independent variable (IV) is modeled as influencing outcome variable directly as well as indirectly through two or more mediators, with the condition that no mediator causally influences another. In addition, Preacher and Hayes’ (2008) bootstrap test for multiple mediators was used to test the indirect effects of the IV (i.e., service-connected disability) on the DV (i.e., happiness) through the mediators (i.e., PERMA). SPSS 25.0 was used to perform all analyses. A priori power analysis was conducted using the G*Power software (Faul et al., 2009). Power was set at .80, with an alpha level of .05 for six DVs. A minimum sample size of 98 was required to detect a medium effect size (f² =.15; Cohen, 1988). The sample recruited in the present study (N = 205) was, therefore, deemed adequate to proceed with the analyses.

Results

Correlation Analysis

Correlations between variables are presented in Table 1. The pillars of well-being (i.e., PERMA) showed moderate-to-large positive intercorrelations (rs = .58–.83). A negative relationship was found between service-connected disability and happiness, PERMA (rs. −.23 to −.16). As expected, strong positive correlations were found between happiness and PERMA (rs = .60–.79).

Table 1.

Correlation Matrix for All Variables in Mediator Analysis.

Variable	M (SD)	1	2	3	4	5	6
1. Happiness	18.5 (5.63)
2. Service-connected disability	0.39 (0.49)	−.21**
3. Positive emotion	6.51 (2.20)	.79***	−.23**
4. Engagement	6.94 (1.71)	.60***	−.18*	.72***
5. Relationships	6.97 (2.31)	.64***	−.16*	.83***	.64***
6. Meaning	7.25 (2.26)	.68***	−.21**	.82***	.72***	.74***
7. Accomplishment	7.73 (1.62)	.61***	−.20**	.66***	.63***	.58***	.75***

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Multiple Mediation Analysis

Baron and Kenny’s (1986) mediation analysis procedures were used to conduct multiple mediation analyses. The three steps involved in this procedure are: (a) regress the mediator (i.e., PERMA) onto the IV (i.e., service-connected disability) to show that it is possible that the two variables can be causally linked; (b) regress the DV (i.e., happiness) onto the IV (i.e., service-connected disability) to show a causal relationship is also possible; and (c) regress the DV (i.e., happiness) simultaneously onto the IV (i.e., service-connected disability) and the mediator to show that the mediator is significantly correlated with the DV (i.e., happiness) even when the IV (i.e., service-connected disability) is statistically controlled. In addition, Preacher and Hayes’ (2008) bootstrap test for multiple mediators was used to test the indirect effects of the IV (i.e., service-connected disability) on the DV (i.e., happiness) through the mediators (i.e., PERMA). We used 5,000 bootstrap samples to assess 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of these effects. If the CIs of the indirect effect did not include zero, it is concluded that there was a statistically significant indirect effect (Hayes, 2009; Preacher & Hayes, 2004).

As can be observed in Figure 1, service-connected disability was negatively associated with happiness: B (95% CI) = −2.40 [−3.96, −0.85]. Service-connected disability was negatively associated with PERMA: Bs (95% CIs) = −1.04 [−1.64, −0.43], −0.63 [−1.10, −0.15], −0.77 [−1.41, −0.12], −0.97 [−1.60, −0.35], and −0.66 [−1.11, −0.21], respectively. Finally, while statistically controlling for the service-connected disability, only positive emotion and accomplishment were significantly associated with happiness, Bs (95% CIs) = 1.87 [1.40, 2.34] and 0.54 [0.09, 0.99], respectively. The model accounted for 64% of the variance in happiness, R = .80, R² = .64, F(6, 198) = 59.02, p < .001, and is considered a large effect size (Cohen, 1988, 1992) A complete summary of the results from the multiple mediation analysis is provided in Table 2.

Figure 1.

The Proposed Mediation Model of the Effect of Service-Connected Disability on Happiness.

Table 2.

Regression Analysis for Happiness.

Variable	B	SE B	β
Service-connected disability	−0.22	.51	−.02
Positive emotion	1.87***	.24	.73***
Engagement	0.07	.22	.02
Relationships	−0.13	.19	−.05
Meaning	−0.06	.22	−.02
Accomplishment	0.54*	.23	.16*

Note. R² = .64, F(6, 198) = 59.02, p < .001.

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

The relationship between service-connected disability and happiness in the final regression equation was examined. The B for service-connected disability was reduced from −2.40 to −0.22 after controlling for the effect of the mediators and the relationship was no longer significant, B (95% CI) = −0.22 [−0.44, 0.66] when the intervening variables (positive emotion and accomplishment) were controlled. This finding can be characterized as a case of full mediation (Baron & Kenny, 1986; see Figure 1). Thus, in this sample of student veterans, positive emotion and accomplishment completely explained the relationship between service-connected disability status and happiness.

Finally, we conducted a bootstrap test to determine the significance of the indirect effect of the IV on the DV through the mediators. The indirect effect for the mediation model was tested using an SPSS macro for conducting bootstrap tests of multiple mediator models downloaded from Andrew F. Hayes’s website (http://www.processmacro.org/download.html). For the mediation model, the unstandardized indirect effects (with 95% CIs derived from bias-corrected and accelerated bootstrap procedures) were products (ab) = −1.94 [−3.37, −0.82] and −0.35 [−0.83, −0.08] for the indirect paths through positive emotion and accomplishment, respectively. Given that the individual paths a and b were significant for each mediator, the 95% CIs do not include zero indicating that the indirect effect is significant (p < .05) in each case.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the role of PERMA (i.e., five pillars of Seligman’s happiness and well-being theory PERMA) in explaining the relationship between service-connected disability and happiness among student veterans. Although all five pillars together had an overall mediated effect, only positive emotion and accomplishment were found with significant mediating effects. The relationship between service-connected disability and happiness could be explained and mediated by positive emotion and accomplishment among student veterans. Student veterans’ happiness was not just affected by one’s disability, but also affected by one’s sense of positive emotion and accomplishment. The results support that some aspects of well-being might offer opportunities to enhance happiness for persons with disabilities (Dunn et al., 2009). For example, based on our study, increasing one’s sense of positive emotion and accomplishment may increase happiness.

It has been suggested that happiness is not a direct response to one’s disability, but a response mediated by people’s psychological reactions to those circumstances (Amundson, 2010). In this study, the two significant mediators were positive emotion, which refers to joy, hope, pleasure, and contentment, and accomplishment, which refers to the persistent drive to make progress toward personal goals and having a sense of achievement in one’s life (Butler & Kern, 2016; Seligman, 2011).

The significant effect of positive emotion on the relationship between disability and happiness reflected the changing setpoint of happiness. Happiness is not a unitary concept with a single set point (Diener et al., 2009). Rather, important life events could alter individuals’ happiness set points, such as acquiring a disability (Diener et al., 2009). When people develop hedonic adaptation and lower their happiness setpoint, they are still able to experience positive emotions (Luhmann et al., 2012). The process of positive emotion adaptation is the likely factor that mediated the relationship between service-connected disability and happiness.

Furthermore, the significant mediating effects of positive emotion and accomplishment can be explained by the hedonic and eudemonic tradition of happiness (Waterman, 2013). Although hedonic happiness refers to attaining pleasure and avoiding pain, eudaimonia happiness is related to the feeling of competence and autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2001). Happiness, thus, can be derived from the attainment of goals or valued outcomes in varied realms (Ryan & Deci, 2001). Therefore, a feeling of fulfillment could contribute to happiness and potentially counteract the effect of disability, which may explain the significance of accomplishment in mediating disability and happiness.

The significant role of accomplishment also suggests the importance of intentional activities in happiness. Lyubomirsky et al. (2005) proposed that sustainable happiness was affected by genetic set points, circumstances, and intentional activities. In this architecture, the authors argued that intentional activities offered the best potential route to higher and sustainable levels of happiness. Although their theory was only used to explain maintaining the happiness that resulted from positive events rather than from negative events (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005), the current successful mediating effect of accomplishment seemed to support the effect of intentional activities in maintaining happiness in adversities as well.

There are some study limitations that need to be considered carefully. First, our convenience sample of mainly males and Caucasians may limit generalizability. There is also a possibility of sampling bias given student veterans who were interested in participating and completing the research study may exhibit different characteristics. Future research might use a random sample to obtain a better representation of the overall student veteran population. Some constructs in our study had a high correlation that could be due to proximity among variables. Finally, as data were collected using a self-reported online survey format, participants’ responses may be affected by social-desirability or self-report biases. Therefore, our results need to be replicated to generalize the findings to the broader student veteran population.

Implications for Practice and Research

The present study established the importance of positive emotion and accomplishment in mediating the service-connected disability and happiness. Through identifying the factors that potentially mediate the relationship between disability and happiness, this study’s results provide implications for targeted interventions for individuals with disabilities, including student veterans with service-connected disabilities. Applying positive psychology as a possible intervention, rehabilitation professionals can promote happiness through hedonic and eudemonic approaches. However, this should be tested via an intervention study examining whether positive emotion and accomplishment are effective in reducing disability impact on happiness.

Since positive emotion can be determined by changing one’s set point of happiness, rehabilitation professionals may help student veterans with disabilities to develop different standards of happiness after acquiring the disability. The ability to adapt their happiness criteria and not use predisability standards to define their happiness can help them develop positive emotions and thus contribute to their happiness. Hedonic happiness, such as pure pleasure and joy, is relevant to one’s positive emotions (Ryan & Deci, 2001). To enhance one’s hedonic happiness and positive emotions, rehabilitation professionals may help student veterans identify the activities that can bring contentment, joy, or other positive emotions. These positive emotion activities can also be evaluated in research practice to see whether they are effective and efficient for this student population.

In addition, eudemonic happiness is related to a sense of achievement through intentional activities, which is another factor that mediates the disability and happiness connection. From this aspect, rehabilitation professionals may help student veterans become involved in activities that can promote productivity, including employment, volunteering, community participation, advocacy, and other meaningful activities. These activities would potentially bring a sense of accomplishment, which holds promise in changing the connection between disability and level of happiness. Researchers may evaluate whether previously developed accomplishment training programs are effective in student veterans with disabilities.

Various positive psychology interventions have been proved to be effective in improving individuals’ happiness level (O’Leary & Dockray, 2015; Seligman et al., 2005; Umucu, Ghosh, et al., 2022). For example, student veterans can follow the gratitude dairy intervention by recording positive things every day, to increase recognition of positivity and happiness (O’Leary & Dockray, 2015). Clinicians and professionals who work with student veterans might also apply positive psychology interventions into therapy, to advance student veterans’ positive thought patterns and happiness levels (Umucu, Rumrill, et al., 2022; Wood et al., 2008). In addition, rehabilitation counselors may find peer support specialists (Fortuna et al., 2019, 2021) who have knowledge and expertise on working with Veterans with disabilities given Veterans prefer working with their fellow Veterans. Finally, although these data were not collected during the pandemic, we strongly believe that this study provides us promise that improving positive emotions and sense of accomplishment may help student Veterans to buffer negative impact of COVID-19 on persons with disabilities and college students as reported by research (Ibarra-Mejia et al., 2022; Lee et al., 2021; McGuire et al., 2022; Umucu, 2021b; Umucu & Lee, 2020; Umucu, Lee & Bezyak, 2022; Umucu, Reyes, Urkmez, et al., 2022).

Overall, rehabilitation and mental health practitioners, social workers, and student veteran centers should be informed about how the relationship between service-connected disability and happiness could be explained by the positive emotion and accomplishment. In addition, university counseling centers should provide evidence-based positive psychotherapy interventions and exercises (e.g., positive psychotherapy, three good things) in conjunction with problem-based preventive interventions to strengthen psychological, academic, and social resources and build PERMA.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The contents of this article were developed with support from the Rehabilitation Research and Training Center (RRTC) on Employment of People with Physical Disabilities. The RRTC was funded by the National Institute on Disability, Independent Living and Rehabilitation Research Grant H133B13001 to Virginia Commonwealth University.

ORCID iDs

Yazmin Castruita Rios

Teresa Grenawalt

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