Business Engagement Strategies for Vocational Rehabilitation Professionals: A Scoping Review

Abstract

The purpose of this scoping review was to identify research-based resources that explore vocational rehabilitation-related business engagement strategies as they relate to three steps: (a) understanding business needs, (b) marketing to businesses, and (c) supporting businesses. In doing so, this review begins to identify strategies that may support vocational rehabilitation agencies and their compliance with the business engagement requirements mandated by the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act. The search of several databases and gray literature identified 153 resources with titles and abstracts that met screening criteria, 54 of which met the inclusion criteria after a review of the full text. Because the purpose of a scoping review is to describe the landscape of available literature on a given topic, this review did not vet studies for quality, nor did it exclude studies of interventions that did not lead to successful business engagement outcomes. Given its goal of identifying broadly relevant information available, the review included resources from non–peer-reviewed, practitioner-oriented sources.

Keywords

vocational rehabilitation business engagement supported employment demand-side Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act Americans with Disabilities Act

Vocational rehabilitation (VR) professionals increasingly see engaging businesses as an essential strategy in helping individuals with disabilities find work and progress in their careers. The Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA), ratified in 2014, mandated that the VR system increase its capacity related to local labor market analysis and business engagement (Chan et al., 2017). Although many VR agencies have provided tailored services to employers under WIOA, these agencies still experience challenges in engaging businesses and meeting their needs (U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2018). These challenges include a lack of VR agency training for employers on disability issues, difficulties with providing qualified job candidates, and insufficient marketing of their services (U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2018).

To examine how VR agencies are positioned to overcome the challenges outlined above, this scoping review explores VR-related business-engagement strategies, exploring the past 3 decades of scholarship. No literature review of any kind had been conducted on this topic at the inception of this project in 2017. Thus, a scoping review methodology was selected for this review because it provides a preliminary assessment on the breadth of research around a given topic. Scoping reviews also help to identify gaps in the extant literature, help to categorize a body of literature in the context of time, and can lay the groundwork for a full systematic literature review.

To identify high-priority information needs from the field, the team conducted a survey and focus groups with VR staff tasked with business engagement at their respective agencies and with the businesses with which they work. The research team then consulted with the VR practitioners and disability employment experts who belonged to the study advisory board for their interpretation of the findings to inform development of the search string. Through these consultative processes, after a preliminary review of the identified studies, as part of organizing review results categorically, the review team identified three relevant steps regarding business engagement strategies: (a) understanding business needs, (b) marketing to businesses, and (c) supporting businesses. This order is not chronological but rather assumes an idealized process that starts by understanding business needs, then engaging in marketing efforts that create opportunities for supporting businesses. In reality, the steps can overlap, can be repeated, and may not always follow this order.

In addition to identifying business engagement strategies related to these three steps, this review also provides insights into how business engagement strategies have evolved since the signing of WIOA. In doing so, the review discusses how previous VR business engagement strategies have shaped current strategies and how current strategies have helped cast a new light on previous ones.

Objective

To select a scoping review topic and help define the review’s objectives and search criteria, the team administered a survey to VR staff whose role in their agencies is to work together to develop and support a nationally standardized approach for the VR system’s business engagement efforts (n = 37). The research team developed the survey in collaboration with the study advisory group, which included disability employment experts and VR practitioners. The survey gauged the informational needs of respondents and of the businesses with which they work. Follow-up focus groups with respondents (n = 6) and representatives from the businesses with which they work (n = 5) further refined the topics that resulted from the survey. The research team then discussed these results with the study advisory group to finalize the review’s objectives and search criteria. Based on these findings and further discussion with the study’s advisory group, the team confirmed the objective of this scoping review—to identify business engagement strategies related to three steps: (a) understanding business needs, (b) marketing to businesses, and (c) supporting businesses.

Method

Data Sources and Searches

The search included literature published from January 1, 1988, through December 31, 2021, that met the eligibility criteria. The year 1988 was selected at the advice of the study advisory group. The advisors pointed to a pivotal meeting in Michigan with representatives from 13 VR agencies, during which attendees emphasized approaches to building relationships with employers, including marketing and dual customer approaches (Anderson et al., 2006). Multistate relationships were formed at this meeting that led to the eventual formation of a national network of VR-oriented business consultants.

The search strategy followed the three-step method described in the JBI (formerly known as the Joanna Briggs Institute) methodology of scoping reviews: (a) a search using the same or similar terms to “business” or “employer” or “human resources” and to “recruit” or “employment” and “persons with disability”; (b) using all identified keywords and index terms in all included library databases; and (c) searching the reference lists of all identified reports and research articles for additional studies. Studies included in the review are from the United States; international articles were excluded from the analysis to maximize the review’s immediate relevance for U.S.-based professionals. Databases searched included PubMed, EBSCO, PsycINFO, SocINDEX, and Academic Search Premier. Specific search terms included: (“VR contact” OR “VR staff” OR “VR counselor” OR “VR services” OR “VR personnel” OR “VR consultant” OR “VR specialist” OR “VR professional” OR “employment specialist” OR “employment counselor” OR “employment consultant” OR “disability specialist” OR “disability counselor” OR “disability consultant” OR “disability personnel” OR “disability staff” OR “disability services” OR “rehabilitation provider” OR “rehabilitation counselor” OR TI “vocational rehabilitation” OR AB “vocational rehabilitation”) in Select a field, optional AND (business OR employer* OR “human resources”) in AB Abstract.

Eligibility Criteria for Review

Only research studies, research-based articles (e.g., peer-reviewed articles that did not conduct research but were informed by research, such as review and theoretical articles), and gray literature that was (a) research or consensus-based, (b) useful for training, (c) related to helping people with disabilities gain or maintain employment, and (d) focused on one or more study topical objectives (understanding, marketing to, or supporting businesses) were included. Any article that did not meet the eligibility criteria was excluded from the review.

Data Extraction

Using the same inclusion criteria, two members of the research team assessed all abstracts and titles for relevance. Screening results from reviewers were compared for interrater reliability, and all discrepancies were resolved through discussion with a third and senior reviewer. If the reviewers were unsure about the title and abstract description, the citation was advanced to the full-text stage, and the inclusion decision was determined by reviewing the full text. Once the list of included studies was determined, a full text of each study was retrieved, and the team extracted relevant data, using a predetermined data-charting form to guide the process. The team also categorized the included articles per JBI’s five levels of research design.

Level descriptions:

– Level 1: “Experimental Designs” includes study designs such as randomized controlled trials.

– Level 2: “Quasi-experimental Designs” includes quasi-experimental prospectively controlled studies and pretest/posttest or historic/retrospective control group studies.

– Level 3 and Level 4: Both levels are identified as “Observational” studies. However, Level 3 includes analytic designs such as case-controlled studies and observational studies without a control group, and Level 4 includes case series and case studies.

– Level 5: “Expert Opinion and Bench Research” includes expert opinion, expert consensus, and bench research articles.

Results

Three coders, working independently from each other, initially charted the same random sample of five studies to become familiar with the charting form and to trial the data. This process ensured that all relevant information was extracted. After screening 530 records (527 from the database search and 3 from other sources suggested by study advisors) and excluding 377 of the records, 153 full-text articles were extracted and assessed for eligibility by four independent reviewers. Of the 153 full-text articles, 54 met the eligibility criteria; 99 did not meet the eligibility criteria and were excluded. Figure 1 illustrates the results of the decision process for the selection of the included studies.

Figure 1.
PRISMA Flowchart of Data Extracted.

The scoping review results have been organized to highlight four major strategies in VR business engagement practices used during the 32-year period of this review.

Strategy 1: Supported employment—services intended to help individuals with disabilities find employment through job coaching, on-the-job-site training, and identifying needed accommodations or assistive technology.

Strategy 2: Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) consultation—VR professionals taking on the role of ADA consultant to help businesses navigate the law’s requirements.

Strategy 3: Demand-side approaches—strategies that account for employer needs, the organizational behavior of the workplace, and the changing labor economy. Demand-side approaches call for VR professionals to build consultative relationships with businesses and to consider their hiring intentions. In this review, studies considering demand-side approaches were combined with studies focused on the dual customer approach.

Strategy 4: Building relationships (non-demand side)—VR strategies for building relationships with businesses outside of the demand-side context.

In the sections that follow, we summarize studies within each of these four strategies. Within each strategy, we discuss the degree to which they were applied to accomplish one or more of the three steps in business outreach, explaining how the literature addressed VR practitioners’ approaches to (a) understanding businesses, (b) marketing to businesses, and (c) supporting businesses. Some of the articles touched on more than one step; to avoid double coding, we matched articles to one of the three steps based on their primary focus.

Strategy 1: Supported Employment

Supported employment is a strategy outlined in the amended Rehabilitation Act (1973). It calls for employment specialists to help individuals with disabilities maintain employment through on-the-job support and systematic instruction. Fourteen articles from 1988 through 2021 highlight supported employment as a VR business engagement strategy—six in terms of understanding businesses (Albright et al., 2020; Gilbride & Hagner, 2005; Hunt, 2015; Riesen & Morgan, 2018; Swanson et al., 2013; Wehman & Avellone, 2021), four in terms of marketing to businesses (Carlson et al., 2018; Petty & Fussell, 1997; Sale, 1990; Trotter et al., 1988), and four in terms of supporting businesses (Helms et al., 1990; Smith et al., 1995; Test & Wood, 1997; Trach & Sheldon, 1999). (See Table 1.)

Understanding Business Needs

Five of the six articles highlighted how supported employment can leverage demand-side strategies to understand the needs of businesses (Gilbride & Hagner, 2005; Hunt, 2015; Riesen & Morgan, 2018; Swanson et al., 2013; Wehman & Avellone, 2021). For example, Swanson et al. (2013) described methods that employment specialists can leverage through the Individual Placement and Support (IPS) model, such as meeting in person to learn more about the business and using demand-side practices like seeing the business from the employer’s perspective. Both Riesen and Morgan (2018) and Wehman and Avellone (2021) described understanding the needs of businesses as an essential component of customized employment—a branch of supported employment that focuses on meeting the needs of both the employee and employer.

The sixth article (Albright et al., 2020) summarized findings from interviews with 13 employers to understand their perspectives on hiring individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and identified several benefits, including individuals with ASD having unique workplace skills. The interviews also revealed that employers generally found VR services helpful and preferred support that was time-limited and that fostered independence in the employee (Albright et al., 2020).

Marketing to Businesses

Three articles discussed how supported employment programs can market their services by engaging employers with job openings and directly discussing the benefits of supported employment (Petty & Fussell, 1997; Sale, 1990; Trotter et al., 1988). For instance, Petty and Fussell (1997) interviewed representatives from 47 businesses employing individuals with severe disabilities to examine employer attitudes toward supported employment. During these interviews, employers also identified strategies for employment specialists, such as conducting site visits to potential business partners and using current employers as marketing agents (Petty & Fussell, 1997).

One of the articles used an experimental design to explore whether employer specialists’ use of the Conceptual Selling model had an impact on their number of job-development contacts (Carlson et al., 2018). Developed to assist individuals with psychiatric disabilities in obtaining employment, the Conceptual Selling model uses demand-side practices such as highlighting the needs of both the client and employer (Carlson et al., 2018). The study found that employer specialists trained under the Conceptual Selling model had more job-development contacts, leading to a higher number of effective job placements (Carlson et al., 2018).

Supporting Businesses

Three of the articles were research-based and offered a range of supported employment strategies to help support employers (Smith et al., 1995; Test & Wood, 1997; Trach & Sheldon, 1999). These strategies included meeting with supervisors and colleagues to discuss the nature of the disability, handling work conflicts, and supporting work integration (Smith et al., 1995); teaching systematic instruction skills, which involves employment specialists teaching coworkers and supervisors how to train individuals with disabilities (Test & Wood, 1997); and using an effective job design that accounts for organizational culture and context as a key component of workplace integration (Trach & Sheldon, 1999).

One article surveyed representatives from 15 human service organizations and five assistant regional directors of the Connecticut Department of Mental Health to inform socially acceptable techniques for implementing supported employment (Helms et al., 1990). Based on the survey’s results, the authors made 10 recommendations—including intensifying employment specialist training, with a focus on addressing values, developing vocational assessments, and creating strategies for working with coworkers and employers (Helms et al., 1990).

Table 1.
Supported Employment.

Study citation (year) Sample size Level of evidence Intervention Outcomes Step

Albright et al. (2020) n = 13 4 NA Interviews revealed that although employers expressed concerns about hiring people with ASD, these concerns can be addressed through accommodations, VR programs, and disability diversity training. Understanding business needs

Gilbride & Hagner (2005) NA 5 NA NA Understanding business needs

Hunt (2015) n = 6 4 NA This case study found that employers generally are open to the services provided by supported employment. Even so, employers remain reluctant to hire mentally ill individuals. Understanding business needs

Riesen & Morgan (2018) n = 10 4 The focus group examined the perceptions of employers regarding barriers and facilitators to customized employment. Five themes emerged: business needs, networking, communication, training, and finances. Understanding business needs

Swanson et al. (2013) NA 5 NA NA Understanding business needs

Wehman & Avellone (2021) NA 5 NA NA Understanding business needs

Carlson et al. (2018) n = 27 2 Examines effects of the Conceptual Selling method used within the context of job development. Employment specialists trained in the method had more job development contacts per employer. Marketing to businesses

Petty & Fussell (1997) n = 47 4 NA Interviews with employers revealed that some believe few career advancement opportunities exist for supported employment participants. Marketing to businesses

Sale (1990) NA 5 NA NA Marketing to businesses

Trotter et al. (1988) n = 34 2 Model for the vocational rehabilitation of persons with severe psychiatric disability that provides support to both client and employer. Preliminary data suggest that the model is effective in returning individuals with severe psychiatric disability to competitive employment. Marketing to businesses

Helms et al. (1990) n = 14 4 NA Executive directors of human service agencies were surveyed to identify barriers that inhibit conversion from sheltered to supported employment. Identified barriers were lack of experienced staff, transportation, and skills necessary to communicate with the business community. Supporting businesses

Smith et al. (1995) NA 5 NA NA Supporting businesses

Test & Wood (1997) NA 5 NA NA Supporting businesses

Trach & Sheldon (1999) NA 5 NA NA Supporting businesses

Note. ASD = autism spectrum disorder; NA = not available; VR = vocational rehabilitation.

Strategy 2: ADA Consultation

From 1992 through 1995, the literature primarily focused on ADA-related issues, especially VR professionals serving as business consultants on ADA mandates. Six articles in this time frame reference ADA consultation as a VR business engagement strategy—four articles in terms of understanding businesses’ needs (Gilbride et al., 1992; Michaels et al., 1993; Michaels & Risucci, 1993; Satcher & Hendren, 1992), one article in terms of marketing to businesses (Satcher, 1992), and one article in terms of supporting businesses (Roessler & Rumrill, 1995). After this 3-year time frame (1992–1995), two more articles with an ADA focus were published under the understanding business step (Bruyère et al., 2006; Gold et al., 2012). (See Table 2.)

Understanding Business Needs

Three of the articles were surveys of employers aimed at understanding their attitudes toward workplace accommodations mandated by the ADA (Gilbride et al., 1992; Michaels et al., 1993; Satcher & Hendren, 1992). All three articles noted that VR professionals should work with employers directly to educate them on ADA compliance.

Another article (Michaels & Risucci, 1993) surveyed human resources (HR) professionals and VR counselors to understand their attitudes toward workplace accommodations mandated by the ADA for individuals with traumatic brain injury. The survey found that employers were more likely than HR professionals to view job performance limitations as an obstacle (Michaels & Risucci, 1993). The authors concluded that employers might benefit from receiving more information on accommodating work performance differences (Michaels & Risucci, 1993).

Bruyère et al. (2006) conducted a large-scale survey of businesses showing that ADA implementation varies with business size. As a result, the authors concluded that VR staff should consider the size of the business when reflecting on approaches to delivering services. Gold et al. (2012) conducted focus groups with employers, employees, and service providers to get their perspectives on negotiating workplace accommodations. One theme that emerged was that employers and employees often disagree on the importance of adhering to the ADA (Gold et al., 2012). The authors recommended that educational interventions be tailored to the role of each stakeholder in the areas of credibility, trust, and obligations (Gold et al., 2012).

Marketing to Businesses

Satcher (1992) addressed potential questions employers may have with specific ADA requirements, such as what constitutes reasonable accommodations. To help guide employers through such questions, Satcher (1992) recommended that VR professionals market their ADA expertise and capacity to advise employers on compliance-related issues.

Supporting Businesses

Roessler and Rumrill (1995) described how VR professionals can leverage the ADA to help their clients overcome employment barriers by applying the three-I model. The three-I model involves VR professionals encouraging their clients to (a) identify their needs for reasonable accommodations, (b) initiate requests with their employers for accommodation reviews, and (c) implement solutions to disability-related work limitations.

Strategy 3: Demand-Side Approach

In 1992, the demand-side approach first appeared in the VR business engagement literature (Gilbride & Stensrud, 1992); by 1997, it was a consistent focus. Overall, this review identified 25 articles that discuss demand-side strategies related to business engagement. Six of these articles are related to understanding businesses’ needs (Gower et al., 2021; McDonnall & Antonelli, 2020; McDonnall et al., 2013; Millington et al., 2003; Simonsen et al., 2015; Stensrud, 2007); six articles are related to marketing to businesses (Anderson, 2001; Buys & Nelson, 1996; Fraser et al., 2009, 2011; Gilbride & Stensrud, 1999; Vandergoot, 1997); and 13 articles are related to supporting businesses (Balser et al., 2000; Fraser, 2008; Gilbride & Stensrud, 1992; Glade et al., 2020; Hagner & Cooney, 2003; Haines et al., 2018; Leahy et al., 2019; Luecking, 2008; McDonnall, 2016; McDonnall et al., 2020; McDonnall & Sui, 2019; Moore et al., 2018; Unger, 2007). (See Table 3.)

Understanding Business Needs

Six articles addressed understanding business needs within the demand-side approach strategy. Two of the articles were research-based and highlighted how VR professionals should develop long-term relationships with employers by developing knowledge about the businesses they work with and the broader labor market (Gower et al., 2021; Millington et al., 2003).

Three of the articles (McDonnall et al., 2013; Simonsen et al., 2015; Stensrud, 2007) were focus groups and/or surveys that aimed to understand employer attitudes toward hiring individuals with disabilities. For instance, both Stensrud (2007) and Simonsen et al. (2015) found that employers may be more motivated to hire individuals with disabilities when VR professionals account for the specific demands of the business.

Lastly, McDonnall and Antonelli (2020) evaluated a VR intervention focused on hiring individuals with visual impairment. They compared the effectiveness of the dual customer approach to an educational approach for improving employer attitudes. The study found that both approaches improved employer attitudes; however, the educational approach had the advantage of providing the employer with additional knowledge that was retained at follow-up.

Table 2.
ADA Consultation.

Study citation (year) Sample size Level of evidence Intervention Outcomes Step

Gilbride et al. (1992) n = 80 4 NA The survey found that employers were primarily concerned with issues of job restructuring, accommodations, and establishing a good job fit. Understanding business needs

Michaels et al. (1993) n = 85 4 NA A survey designed to assess employer attitudes toward providing accommodations identified three trends: (a) accommodations must be provided on a time-limited basis, (b) accommodations must not create an employee different from other employees, and (c) accommodations must not result in differential treatment of the employee with disabilities. Understanding business needs

Michaels et al. (1993) n = 170 4 NA The survey gauged both VR counselors and employers’ perceptions on workplace accommodations for individual with traumatic brain injury. Counselors generally rated accommodations as more problematic than employers. Understanding business needs

Satcher & Hendren (1992) n = 85 4 NA Survey results revealed that the employment community may be resistant to the ADA and that VR should develop strategies to help businesses facilitate ADA-related issues and compliance. Understanding business needs

Bruyère et al. (2006) n = 813 3 NA A survey of employers found that employers of all sizes still need more information on ADA requirements. The authors contend VR programs can fill this gap by providing more ADA-related services. Understanding business needs

Gold et al. (2012) n = 11 4 NA Focus groups with VR, employees with disabilities, and employers revealed that accommodation expectations differed sharply among these three stakeholders. The authors recommend that education interventions on accommodations be tailored to the specific role of each stakeholder. Understanding business needs

Satcher (1992) NA 5 NA NA Marketing to businesses

Roessler & Rumrill (1995) NA 5 NA NA Supporting businesses

Note. ADA = Americans with Disabilities Act; NA = not available; VR = vocational rehabilitation.

Marketing to Businesses

Four demand-side articles that fit the marketing to business category emphasized the importance of VR professionals using a business-focused message when marketing themselves to employers (Buys & Nelson, 1996; Fraser et al., 2009, 2011; Vandergoot, 1997). For instance, Fraser et al. (2009) interviewed members of the business community to assess their hiring intentions regarding individuals with disabilities. They found that hiring intentions vary by business size, with larger companies more likely to view individuals with disabilities as productive employees (Fraser et al., 2009). To encourage businesses of all sizes to hire more individuals with disabilities, Fraser et al. (2009) said VR professionals need to make themselves more visible as a hiring resource, which can be achieved through a demand-side placement marketing effort. In 2011, Fraser et al. updated the findings from their 2009 study by surveying employers to understand how they find qualified workers with disabilities as part of their recruitment process. The study found that employers often had trouble contacting VR agencies to discuss potential benefits of hiring individuals with disabilities (Fraser et al., 2011). Fraser et al. (2011) stated that VR agencies may wish to consider establishing a central marketing staff to connect and build relationships with employers—an effort that would align with the demand-side focus in VR.

A fifth article in this grouping stated that an essential function of the demand-side model is to develop consulting relationships with employers, including their long- and short-term needs (Gilbride & Stensrud, 1999). As a first step, VR professionals can engage employers who already have hired someone with a disability and so demonstrated openness to a workforce that includes employees with disabilities (Gilbride & Stensrud, 1999).

Lastly, Anderson (2001) examined ways to use basic marketing principles to strengthen the relationships between VR agencies and the businesses they serve. The author made the case for applying VR services to the framework of the five Ps of marketing (product, price, place, promotion, and people) to build stronger partnerships with businesses and meet their needs.

Supporting Businesses

All 13 demand-side articles that addressed supporting business highlighted how VR professionals can support employers through developing relationships built on consultation and understanding their needs. For example, Luecking (2008) found that demand-side approaches offer VR professionals ways to expand and manage their relationships with employers and offered several recommendations: (a) provide consultation to employers in a way that creates demand for individuals with disabilities, (b) identify ways to add value to employers’ business operations, (c) establish ways to meet the needs of both the employer and client, and (d) create a demand for what individual job seekers with disabilities have to offer and then facilitate their employment. Using a quasi-experimental design, McDonnall et al. (2020) assessed the impact of a business development training for rehabilitation counselors for individuals who were visually impaired around six key outcomes: (a) self-efficacy for business development, (b) use of the dual customer approach, (c) business development knowledge, (d) self-perceived business development knowledge, (e) self-perceived business development skills, and (f) self-perceived business development comfort. The training was effective in helping VR counselors improve on all six of these outcomes.

Strategy 4: Building Relationships (Non-Demand Side)

Although building relationships with businesses is an essential component of the demand-side strategy, this review identified seven articles that discuss relationship-building strategies outside of the demand-side context. Three of these articles are related to understanding businesses (Gilbride et al., 2000; Schriner et al., 1989; Scorzelli, 1995); another three are related to marketing (Gilbride et al., 2006; Hagner et al., 1996; McDonnall & Antonelli, 2019); and one discusses supporting businesses (McDonnall & Crudden, 2015). (See Table 4.)

Understanding Businesses

Three articles gauged employers’ attitudes toward VR and the services they provide through qualitative surveys (Gilbride et al., 2000; Schriner et al., 1989; Scorzelli, 1995). For example, Gilbride et al. (2000) conducted a survey with businesses to examine their attitudes toward hiring individuals with disabilities and VR services. The study found that employers were generally not familiar with their state’s VR program, often not knowing if or when they had been served by VR (Gilbride et al., 2000). Gilbride et al. (2000) recommend that VR professionals manage their relationships with employers in a way that makes them more visible to employers.

Marketing to Businesses

Three articles offered a variety of different strategies for marketing to businesses through building relationships with employers (Gilbride et al., 2006; Hagner et al., 1996; McDonnall & Antonelli, 2019). Hagner et al. (1996) listed several strategies, including establishing employer advisory boards to enter the local business community and enlisting trusted community members with ties to the business community to serve as advocates. Gilbride et al. (2006) used a four-phase process to develop and validate the Employer Openness Survey, which measured how open employers are to hiring and accommodating individuals with disabilities. Gilbride et al. (2006) stated that the Employer Openness Survey not only has the potential to help VR professionals consult with employers in evaluating hiring decisions but can also deepen the VR–employer relationship through providing a platform in which meaningful conversation can take place. McDonnall and Antonelli (2019) studied factors associated with employers hiring people with visual impairments. They found that personal connections between VR professionals and employers played an important role in hiring, highlighting the need for counselors to have contact with the employer before or during the hiring process.

Table 3.
Demand Side.

Study citation (year) Sample size Level of evidence Intervention Outcomes Step

Gower et al. (2021) NA 5 NA NA Understanding business needs

McDonnall et al. (2013) n = 210 3 NA The survey found that VR staff had more negative perceptions of employers’ attitudes than providers who were business relations staff. Understanding business needs

McDonnall et al. (2020) n = 59 1 Evaluated the relative effectiveness of two approaches (dual customer versus educational) during one-on-one meetings between a VR professional and an employer. Both approaches were successful at improving employers’ attitudes, knowledge, and intent to hire. Understanding business needs

Millington et al. (2003) NA 5 NA NA Understanding business needs

Simonsen et al. (2015) n = 108 3 NA The survey examined employers’ perceptions of youth with disabilities and found that preparedness, professionalism, and ability to perform were the prime motivating factors to hire. Understanding business needs

Stensrud (2007) n = 67 4 NA Findings support VR counselors learning how to assess the organizational culture of businesses to better gauge their openness to hiring individuals with disabilities. Understanding business needs

Anderson (2001) NA 5 NA NA Marketing to businesses

Buys & Nelson (1996) n = 28 1 Impact of VR counselor’s message and appearance during job development meetings with employers. Employers were significantly more willing to interview people with severe disabilities whose rehabilitation counselor used business-focused messaging. No significant difference in findings regarding appearance. Marketing to businesses

Fraser et al. (2009) n = 92 4 NA Less than 20% of the companies interviewed reported employing people with disabilities, whereas 72% said the nature of their work is too hard for people with disabilities. Persuasive information is needed on the productivity of people with disabilities and bottom-line productivity/incentive options. Marketing to businesses

Fraser et al. (2011) n = 92 4 NA An employer survey supported further use of the theory of planned behavior model to better understand employer behavior and relevant marketing interventions on the demand side of the VR process. Marketing to businesses

Gilbride & Stensrud (1999) NA 5 NA NA Marketing to businesses

Vandergoot (1994) NA 5 NA NA Marketing to businesses

Balser et al. (2000) NA 5 NA NA Supporting businesses

Fraser (2008) NA 5 NA NA Supporting businesses

Gilbride et al. (1992) NA 5 NA NA Supporting businesses

Glade et al. (2020) n = 26 4 NA Interviewed employees with disabilities to determine how employers can be more inclusive. Findings support the importance of shared responsibility between employees with disabilities and coworkers to develop a culture of inclusion. Supporting businesses

Hagner & Cooney (2003) NA 5 NA NA Supporting businesses

Haines et al. (2018) n = 67 4 NA Finding form the survey revealed that state VR agencies are providing a wide range of services to businesses and engaging in a variety of business relations activities. Supporting businesses

Leahy et al. (2019) n = 394 2 Ran a multiple-ANOVA to compare participants across different rehabilitation sites. Study identified six knowledge domains for rehabilitation counselors: (a) rehabilitation/mental health counseling, (b) employer engagement and job placement, (c) case management, (d) medical/psychosocial aspects of chronic illness and disability, (e) research methodology and evidence-based practice, and (f) group and family counseling. Supporting businesses

Luecking (2008) NA 5 NA NA Supporting businesses

McDonnall (2016) n = 245 3 NA The more counselors reported they used practices consistent with the business relations model approach, the more likely their agency’s consumers were to achieve employment. The more business relation staff used the blindness-specific techniques, the more likely their agency’s consumers were to achieve employment. Supporting businesses

McDonnall & Sui (2019) n = 80 2 Business development training for rehabilitation counselors Participants demonstrated statistically significant increases on all outcome measures, with effect sizes ranging from medium to large. Supporting businesses

McDonnall et al. (2020) n = 71 2 Business development training created specifically for rehabilitation counselors for the blind Results indicate the training was linked to improvement in all outcomes, although its effectiveness for some outcomes differed by agency. Supporting businesses

Moore et al. (2018) NA 5 NA NA Supporting businesses

Unger (2007) NA 5 NA NA Supporting businesses

Note. ANOVA = analysis of variance; NA = not available; VR = vocational rehabilitation.

Supporting Businesses

McDonnall and Crudden (2015) conducted interviews to explore employer perspectives on working with VR agencies. Several themes emerged regarding how VR agencies can maintain relationships with employers, including VR contacts being available when needed and responsive to requests; providing help with assistive technology; following up with employers to ensure the employee is doing well; and trying to develop close relationships, which help employers speak candidly when issues arise.

Discussion

By 1997, 7 years after the implementation of ADA, demand-side approaches had proliferated in the literature, quickly becoming the predominant VR business engagement strategy across all three steps—understanding, marketing to, and supporting businesses. Although WIOA mandated practices that exemplify demand-side approaches, these approaches appear in the literature well before the 2014 signing of the law. This confluence points to how practice informs legislation, rather than only examining how legislation influences practice; see the study by Anderson et al. (2006), which is one of the first compilations of VR practitioners’ thinking on this topic. The report illustrates how their recommendations align with the eventual legislation. In all, 25 articles in this review featured demand-side strategies, which is close to the number of articles discussed in the other three strategies combined (n = 29). Furthermore, the 25 demand-side articles do not include the articles that discuss customized employment, the IPS model, or the Conceptual Selling model, all of which align with supported employment. These models also feature demand-side components and precede the demand-side approach in the literature—a possible sign of how demand-side practices have helped evolve continued application of strategies developed earlier in the field’s efforts to engage businesses.

This review also observed how, after 1992, VR business engagement strategies shifted toward helping businesses comply with the new ADA requirements. This shift necessitated the need for VR professionals to understand and assess the ADA-related concerns of businesses, marking a departure from earlier supported employment strategies. It may be fair to speculate what role the ADA played in paving the way for demand-side approaches. The consulting relationships that transpired from the ratification of the ADA may have provided a natural segue into the type of consulting relationships advocated by the demand-side approach.

Lastly, although demand-side approaches have played a prominent role in VR business engagement strategies for the past 24 years, there are few experimental studies demonstrating the efficacy of this approach (see Figure 2). If demand-side approaches are to continue to play a prominent role, then future research needs to prioritize experimental studies to further reinforce demand-side approaches as a best practice.

Figure 2.
Frequency of Research Design by Year.

Limitations

This scoping review has several limitations. The quality of each item’s research methods was not assessed as part of determining inclusion or exclusion. Determinations for inclusion were instead derived by assessing each study’s conclusions, implications, and recommendations as they relate to VR strategies in terms of understanding, marketing to, and supporting businesses. After items met those criteria, they were categorized per study design for the purposes of mapping the rigor of the research included in this review (see Figure 2). Another limitation is that this review used only U.S. articles. International articles may have been appropriate for this review’s objectives but were not considered because this review specifically focused on VR business engagement strategies ripe for uptake among VR professionals in the United States. In addition, the goal of a scoping review is to provide a descriptive overview of the information available; therefore, this scoping review does not answer specific questions about what interventions are likely to be most effective. The review’s goal, rather, is to present the landscape of literature about this particular topic. Finally, there may be some interpretation involved in deciding what constitutes a demand-side practice. Although some articles never explicitly mention the term “demand side,” their focus on understanding business needs and consultative strategies exhibits clear demand-side influences. Other strategies that focus on building relationships but do not sufficiently emphasize an “understanding business needs” component may possibly feature demand-side influences even if the respective articles do not emphasize them.

Conclusion

This literature review may be helpful in informing both rehabilitation counseling research and practice. This scoping review examined different VR business engagement strategies associated with understanding, marketing to, and supporting businesses; also, it highlighted how these strategies fit in with approaches dominant in the field before and after the 1990 passage of the ADA and the 2014 signing of WIOA. For the past quarter century, demand-side approaches have been the most prominently featured VR business engagement strategy in the extant literature although few of the studies were experimental, suggesting a gap in the literature that future research could address.

Table 4.
Building Relationships (Non-Demand Side).

Study citation (year) Sample size Level of evidence Intervention Outcomes Step

Gilbride et al. (2000) n = 106 4 NA The survey found that although employers were glad to have hired people with disabilities, they expressed reservations about hiring people with certain types of disabilities. Satisfaction with VR was mixed. Understanding business needs

Schriner et al. (1989) n = 105 4 NA The survey revealed that VR viewed employers as concerned about placing workers with emotional and mental disabilities and not concerned about recruitment, selection, or workforce acceptance. Understanding business needs

Scorzelli (1995) n = 62 4 NA The survey confirmed the importance of vocational counseling and occupational placement courses in VR training curriculum and identified field experience as a useful tool for developing links with businesses. Understanding business needs

Gilbride et al. (2006) NA 5 NA The study provides initial support for the Employer Openness Survey and confirmation of its usefulness for rehabilitation counselors providing placement services. Marketing to businesses

Hagner et al. (1996) NA 5 NA NA Marketing to businesses

McDonnall & Sui (2019) n = 388 4 Results from the survey revealed application receipt comprised the main predictor of hiring behavior among employees; however, strong relationships, employer attitudes, and personal relationships remained significant predictors. Marketing to businesses

McDonnall & Crudden (2015) n = 12 4 NA Employers discussed their relationships with VR. Findings support previous studies and identify new information, including the importance of one-on-one relationships and using connections from job retention cases. Supporting businesses

Note. VR = vocational rehabilitation.

The review results not only provide a picture of which VR business engagement strategies are most prevalent today but also explain how these strategies have evolved through the years. Consequently, this review may serve to deepen VR agency staff’s understanding of the developmental trajectory of the full array of existing strategies available to engage businesses. Demand-side strategies are of obvious importance to the VR field given the WIOA mandate to serve businesses as VR customers. That said, other non-demand-side engagement strategies merit sustained consideration in terms of practice and additional research, per this “dual customer” approach to VR service delivery. Because many VR agencies may not have the resources to implement training on all of the strategies discussed in this review, they may consider partnering with technical assistance centers that have expertise on disability and employment and draw on their expertise and resources in this area.

Study citation (year)	Sample size	Level of evidence	Intervention	Outcomes	Step
Albright et al. (2020)	n = 13	4	NA	Interviews revealed that although employers expressed concerns about hiring people with ASD, these concerns can be addressed through accommodations, VR programs, and disability diversity training.	Understanding business needs
Gilbride & Hagner (2005)	NA	5	NA	NA	Understanding business needs
Hunt (2015)	n = 6	4	NA	This case study found that employers generally are open to the services provided by supported employment. Even so, employers remain reluctant to hire mentally ill individuals.	Understanding business needs
Riesen & Morgan (2018)	n = 10	4		The focus group examined the perceptions of employers regarding barriers and facilitators to customized employment. Five themes emerged: business needs, networking, communication, training, and finances.	Understanding business needs
Swanson et al. (2013)	NA	5	NA	NA	Understanding business needs
Wehman & Avellone (2021)	NA	5	NA	NA	Understanding business needs
Carlson et al. (2018)	n = 27	2	Examines effects of the Conceptual Selling method used within the context of job development.	Employment specialists trained in the method had more job development contacts per employer.	Marketing to businesses
Petty & Fussell (1997)	n = 47	4	NA	Interviews with employers revealed that some believe few career advancement opportunities exist for supported employment participants.	Marketing to businesses
Sale (1990)	NA	5	NA	NA	Marketing to businesses
Trotter et al. (1988)	n = 34	2	Model for the vocational rehabilitation of persons with severe psychiatric disability that provides support to both client and employer.	Preliminary data suggest that the model is effective in returning individuals with severe psychiatric disability to competitive employment.	Marketing to businesses
Helms et al. (1990)	n = 14	4	NA	Executive directors of human service agencies were surveyed to identify barriers that inhibit conversion from sheltered to supported employment. Identified barriers were lack of experienced staff, transportation, and skills necessary to communicate with the business community.	Supporting businesses
Smith et al. (1995)	NA	5	NA	NA	Supporting businesses
Test & Wood (1997)	NA	5	NA	NA	Supporting businesses
Trach & Sheldon (1999)	NA	5	NA	NA	Supporting businesses

Study citation (year)	Sample size	Level of evidence	Intervention	Outcomes	Step
Gilbride et al. (1992)	n = 80	4	NA	The survey found that employers were primarily concerned with issues of job restructuring, accommodations, and establishing a good job fit.	Understanding business needs
Michaels et al. (1993)	n = 85	4	NA	A survey designed to assess employer attitudes toward providing accommodations identified three trends: (a) accommodations must be provided on a time-limited basis, (b) accommodations must not create an employee different from other employees, and (c) accommodations must not result in differential treatment of the employee with disabilities.	Understanding business needs
Michaels et al. (1993)	n = 170	4	NA	The survey gauged both VR counselors and employers’ perceptions on workplace accommodations for individual with traumatic brain injury. Counselors generally rated accommodations as more problematic than employers.	Understanding business needs
Satcher & Hendren (1992)	n = 85	4	NA	Survey results revealed that the employment community may be resistant to the ADA and that VR should develop strategies to help businesses facilitate ADA-related issues and compliance.	Understanding business needs
Bruyère et al. (2006)	n = 813	3	NA	A survey of employers found that employers of all sizes still need more information on ADA requirements. The authors contend VR programs can fill this gap by providing more ADA-related services.	Understanding business needs
Gold et al. (2012)	n = 11	4	NA	Focus groups with VR, employees with disabilities, and employers revealed that accommodation expectations differed sharply among these three stakeholders. The authors recommend that education interventions on accommodations be tailored to the specific role of each stakeholder.	Understanding business needs
Satcher (1992)	NA	5	NA	NA	Marketing to businesses
Roessler & Rumrill (1995)	NA	5	NA	NA	Supporting businesses

Study citation (year)	Sample size	Level of evidence	Intervention	Outcomes	Step
Gower et al. (2021)	NA	5	NA	NA	Understanding business needs
McDonnall et al. (2013)	n = 210	3	NA	The survey found that VR staff had more negative perceptions of employers’ attitudes than providers who were business relations staff.	Understanding business needs
McDonnall et al. (2020)	n = 59	1	Evaluated the relative effectiveness of two approaches (dual customer versus educational) during one-on-one meetings between a VR professional and an employer.	Both approaches were successful at improving employers’ attitudes, knowledge, and intent to hire.	Understanding business needs
Millington et al. (2003)	NA	5	NA	NA	Understanding business needs
Simonsen et al. (2015)	n = 108	3	NA	The survey examined employers’ perceptions of youth with disabilities and found that preparedness, professionalism, and ability to perform were the prime motivating factors to hire.	Understanding business needs
Stensrud (2007)	n = 67	4	NA	Findings support VR counselors learning how to assess the organizational culture of businesses to better gauge their openness to hiring individuals with disabilities.	Understanding business needs
Anderson (2001)	NA	5	NA	NA	Marketing to businesses
Buys & Nelson (1996)	n = 28	1	Impact of VR counselor’s message and appearance during job development meetings with employers.	Employers were significantly more willing to interview people with severe disabilities whose rehabilitation counselor used business-focused messaging. No significant difference in findings regarding appearance.	Marketing to businesses
Fraser et al. (2009)	n = 92	4	NA	Less than 20% of the companies interviewed reported employing people with disabilities, whereas 72% said the nature of their work is too hard for people with disabilities. Persuasive information is needed on the productivity of people with disabilities and bottom-line productivity/incentive options.	Marketing to businesses
Fraser et al. (2011)	n = 92	4	NA	An employer survey supported further use of the theory of planned behavior model to better understand employer behavior and relevant marketing interventions on the demand side of the VR process.	Marketing to businesses
Gilbride & Stensrud (1999)	NA	5	NA	NA	Marketing to businesses
Vandergoot (1994)	NA	5	NA	NA	Marketing to businesses
Balser et al. (2000)	NA	5	NA	NA	Supporting businesses
Fraser (2008)	NA	5	NA	NA	Supporting businesses
Gilbride et al. (1992)	NA	5	NA	NA	Supporting businesses
Glade et al. (2020)	n = 26	4	NA	Interviewed employees with disabilities to determine how employers can be more inclusive. Findings support the importance of shared responsibility between employees with disabilities and coworkers to develop a culture of inclusion.	Supporting businesses
Hagner & Cooney (2003)	NA	5	NA	NA	Supporting businesses
Haines et al. (2018)	n = 67	4	NA	Finding form the survey revealed that state VR agencies are providing a wide range of services to businesses and engaging in a variety of business relations activities.	Supporting businesses
Leahy et al. (2019)	n = 394	2	Ran a multiple-ANOVA to compare participants across different rehabilitation sites.	Study identified six knowledge domains for rehabilitation counselors: (a) rehabilitation/mental health counseling, (b) employer engagement and job placement, (c) case management, (d) medical/psychosocial aspects of chronic illness and disability, (e) research methodology and evidence-based practice, and (f) group and family counseling.	Supporting businesses
Luecking (2008)	NA	5	NA	NA	Supporting businesses
McDonnall (2016)	n = 245	3	NA	The more counselors reported they used practices consistent with the business relations model approach, the more likely their agency’s consumers were to achieve employment. The more business relation staff used the blindness-specific techniques, the more likely their agency’s consumers were to achieve employment.	Supporting businesses
McDonnall & Sui (2019)	n = 80	2	Business development training for rehabilitation counselors	Participants demonstrated statistically significant increases on all outcome measures, with effect sizes ranging from medium to large.	Supporting businesses
McDonnall et al. (2020)	n = 71	2	Business development training created specifically for rehabilitation counselors for the blind	Results indicate the training was linked to improvement in all outcomes, although its effectiveness for some outcomes differed by agency.	Supporting businesses
Moore et al. (2018)	NA	5	NA	NA	Supporting businesses
Unger (2007)	NA	5	NA	NA	Supporting businesses

Study citation (year)	Sample size	Level of evidence	Intervention	Outcomes	Step
Gilbride et al. (2000)	n = 106	4	NA	The survey found that although employers were glad to have hired people with disabilities, they expressed reservations about hiring people with certain types of disabilities. Satisfaction with VR was mixed.	Understanding business needs
Schriner et al. (1989)	n = 105	4	NA	The survey revealed that VR viewed employers as concerned about placing workers with emotional and mental disabilities and not concerned about recruitment, selection, or workforce acceptance.	Understanding business needs
Scorzelli (1995)	n = 62	4	NA	The survey confirmed the importance of vocational counseling and occupational placement courses in VR training curriculum and identified field experience as a useful tool for developing links with businesses.	Understanding business needs
Gilbride et al. (2006)	NA	5	NA	The study provides initial support for the Employer Openness Survey and confirmation of its usefulness for rehabilitation counselors providing placement services.	Marketing to businesses
Hagner et al. (1996)	NA	5	NA	NA	Marketing to businesses
McDonnall & Sui (2019)	n = 388	4		Results from the survey revealed application receipt comprised the main predictor of hiring behavior among employees; however, strong relationships, employer attitudes, and personal relationships remained significant predictors.	Marketing to businesses
McDonnall & Crudden (2015)	n = 12	4	NA	Employers discussed their relationships with VR. Findings support previous studies and identify new information, including the importance of one-on-one relationships and using connections from job retention cases.	Supporting businesses

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Lucy Wooldridge and Elizabeth Frentzel, who reviewed studies for inclusion eligibility; Devin Dedrick, who coded the studies by methodology; and Colleen McLelland, who laid out tables. We also appreciate the contributions of our study’s Technical Working Group, Kathy West-Evans, John Connelly, John O’Neill, and Kathe Matrone, and members of the Council of State Administrators of Vocational Rehabilitation’s National Employment Team, past and present, who provided their insights regarding the needs of the field.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The contents of this article were developed under grant numbers 90DP0077 and 90DPKT0001 from the National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research (NIDILRR). NIDILRR is a center within the Administration for Community Living (ACL), Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). The contents of this article do not necessarily represent the policy of NIDILRR, ACL, or HHS, and you should not assume endorsement by the Federal Government.

ORCID iD

Jeremy Rasmussen

References

Albright

Kulok

Scarpa

(2020). A qualitative analysis of employer perspectives on the hiring and employment of adults with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 53(2), 167–182. https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-201094

Anderson

(2001). The rehabilitation and employer partnership: Walking the walk. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 16(2), 105–109.

Anderson

Bradshaw

Colvin

Dickerson

Evans

Johnson

Minta

Moore

O’Brien

Rosanelli

Siewert

Vinson

Wood

(2006). 32nd Institute on Rehabilitation Issues (IRI): The VR-business network: Charting your course. University of Arkansas.

Balser

R. M.

Hagner

Hornby

(2000). Partnership with the business community: The Mental Health Employer Consortium. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 31(4), 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1891/0047-2220.31.4.47

Bruyère

S. M.

Erickson

W. A.

VanLooy

S. A.

(2006). The impact of business size on employer ADA response. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 49(4), 194–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/00343552060490040101

Buys

L. R.

Nelson

R. E.

(1996). Impact of rehabilitation counselors’ dress and language on employers’ willingness to interview persons with severe disabilities. Journal of Rehabilitation Administration, 20(2), 121–131.

Carlson

Smith

Mariscal

E. S.

Rapp

C. A.

Holter

M. C.

Eunjeong

Kukla

Fukui

(2018). The comparative effectiveness of a model of job development versus treatment as usual. Best Practices in Mental Health, 14(2), 21–31.

Chan

Tansey

T. N.

Chronister

McMahon

B. T.

Iwanaga

J.-R.

Chen

Lee

Bengtson

Umucu

Flowers

Moser

(2017). Rehabilitation counseling practice in state vocational rehabilitation and the effect of the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA). Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 48(3), 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1891/0047-2220.48.3.20

Fraser

R. T.

(2008). Successfully engaging the business community in the vocational rehabilitation placement process. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 28(2), 115–120.

10.

Fraser

R. T.

Ajzen

Johnson

Hebert

Chan

(2011). Understanding employers’ hiring intention in relation to qualified workers with disabilities. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 35(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-2011-0548

11.

Fraser

R. T.

Johnson

Hebert

Ajzen

Copeland

Brown

Chan

(2009). Understanding employers’ hiring intentions in relation to qualified workers with disabilities: Preliminary findings. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 20(4), 420–426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10926-009-9220-1

12.

Gilbride

D. D.

Hagner

(2005). People with disabilities in the workplace. In Parker

Szymansky

Patterson

(Eds.), Rehabilitation counseling: Basics and beyond (4th ed., pp. 281–306). PRO-ED.

13.

Gilbride

D. D.

Stensrud

(1992). Demand-side job development: A model for the 1990s. Journal of Rehabilitation, 58(4), 34–39.

14.

Gilbride

D. D.

Stensrud

(1999). Demand-side job development and system change. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 42(4), 329–342.

15.

Gilbride

D. D.

Stensrud

Connolly

(1992). Employers’ concerns about the ADA: Implications and opportunities for rehabilitation counselors. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 23(3), 45–46. https://doi.org/10.1891/0047-2220.23.3.45

16.

Gilbride

D. D.

Stensrud

Ehlers

Evans

Peterson

(2000). Employers’ attitudes toward hiring persons with disabilities and vocational rehabilitation services. Journal of Rehabilitation, 66(4), 17–23.

17.

Gilbride

D. D.

Vandergoot

Golden

Stensrud

(2006). Development and validation of the Employer Openness Survey. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 49(2), 81–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/00343552060490020901

18.

Glade

Koch

L. C.

Zaandam

Simon

L. S.

Manno

C. M.

Rumrill

P. D.

Jr Rosen

C. C.

(2020). Recommendations from employees with disabilities for creating inclusive workplaces: Results from a grounded theory investigation. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 53(1), 77–88. https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-201087

19.

Gold

P. B.

Oire

S. N.

Fabian

E. S.

Wewiorski

N. J.

(2012). Negotiating reasonable workplace accommodations: Perspectives of employers, employees with disabilities, and rehabilitation service providers. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 37(1), 25–37. https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-2012-0597

20.

Gower

W. S.

Rudstam

Switzer

(2021). Elements of effective job development: Environmental trends and the work of rehabilitation professionals. In Strauser

D. R.

(Ed.), Career development, employment, and disability in rehabilitation: From theory to practice (2nd ed., pp. 239–260). Springer.

21.

Hagner

Cooney

(2003). Building employer capacity to support employees with severe disabilities in the workplace. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment & Rehabilitation, 21(1), 77–82.

22.

Hagner

Fesko

S. L.

Cadigan

Kiernan

Butterworth

(1996). Securing employment: Job search and employer negotiation strategies in rehabilitation. In Szymanski

E. M.

Parker

R. M.

(Eds.), Work and disability: Issues and strategies in career development and job placement (pp. 309–340). PRO-ED.

23.

Haines

Soldner

Zhang

Saint Laurent

M.-L.

Knabe

West-Evans

Mock

Foley

(2018). Vocational rehabilitation and business relations: Preliminary indicators of state VR agency capacity. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 48(1), 133–145. https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-170921

24.

Helms

B. J.

Moore

S. C.

Powell

T. H.

Gould

B. F.

(1990). A preliminary study of a statewide effort to develop supported employment services for people with severe and prolonged mental illness. Psychosocial Rehabilitation Journal, 13(3), 45–57. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0099489

25.

Hunt

S. G.

(2015). Supported employment for mentally ill individuals: Employers’ perceptions [Doctoral dissertation, University of the Rockies]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3732598)

26.

Leahy

M. J.

Chan

Iwanaga

Umucu

Sung

Bishop

Strauser

(2019). Empirically derived test specifications for the certified rehabilitation counselor examination: Revisiting the essential competencies of rehabilitation counselors. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 63(1), 35–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/0034355218800842

27.

Luecking

R. G.

(2008). Emerging employer views of people with disabilities and the future of job development. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 29(1), 3–13.

28.

McDonnall

M. C.

(2016). The relationship between vocational rehabilitation professional’s interactions with businesses and employment outcomes for consumers who are blind or visually impaired. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 59(4), 203–212. https://doi.org/10.1177/0034355215586389

29.

McDonnall

M. C.

Antonelli

(2019). A second look at factors associated with employer hiring behavior regarding people who are blind or have low vision. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 113(6), 538–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145482X19887642

30.

McDonnall

M. C.

Antonelli

(2020). The impact of a brief meeting on employer attitudes, knowledge, and intent to hire. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 63(3), 131–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/0034355219889409

31.

McDonnall

M. C.

Cmar

J. L.

Tatch

A. J.

(2020). Importance of agency context for long-term effectiveness of a business development training for rehabilitation counselors. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 53(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-201081

32.

McDonnall

M. C.

Crudden

(2015). Building relationships with businesses: Recommendations from employers concerning persons who are blind or visually impaired. Journal of Rehabilitation, 81(3), 43–50.

33.

McDonnall

M. C.

Crudden

Zhou

(2013). Employer attitudes towards persons who are blind or visually impaired: Perspectives and recommendations from vocational rehabilitation personnel. Journal of Rehabilitation, 79(3), 17–24.

34.

McDonnall

M. C.

Sui

(2019). Effectiveness of a business development training for rehabilitation counselors who work with consumers who are blind or visually impaired. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 63(1), 25–34. https://doi.org/10.1177/0034355218796276

35.

Michaels

C. A.

Nappo

Barrett

Risucci

D. A.

Harles

C. W.

(1993). Provisions of reasonable accommodation: What do employers think?. In Wehman

(Ed.), The ADA mandate for social change (pp. 89–115). Paul H. Brookes.

36.

Michaels

C. A.

Risucci

D. A.

(1993). Employer and counselor perceptions of workplace accommodations for persons with traumatic brain injury. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 24(1), 38–46. https://doi.org/10.1891/0047-2220.24.1.38

37.

Millington

M. J.

Miller

D. J.

Asner-Self

K. K.

Linkowski

(2003). The business perspective on employers, disability, and vocational rehabilitation. In Szymanski

E. M.

Parker

R. M.

(Eds.), Work and disability: Issues and strategies in career development and job placement (2nd ed., pp. 317–342). PRO-ED.

38.

Moore

Haines

Bradshaw

Porter

Smith

Foley

(2018). Development of the progressive employment dual customer model for vocational rehabilitation. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 49(2), 149–160. https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-180961

39.

Petty

D. M.

Fussell

E. M.

(1997). Employer attitudes and satisfaction with supported employment. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 12(1), 15–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/108835769701200102

40.

Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Pub. L. 114-95, 07 Stat. 38, enacted September 26, 1973.

41.

Riesen

Morgan

R. L.

(2018). Employer views of customized employment: A focus group analysis. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 49(1), 33–44. https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-180952

42.

Roessler

R. T.

Rumrill

P. D.

Jr. , (1995). Promoting reasonable accommodations: An essential postemployment service. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 26(4), 3–7. https://doi.org/10.1891/0047-2220.26.4.3

43.

Sale

(1990). Preparation of supported employment personnel. In Kasier

A. P.

McWhorter

C. M.

(Eds.), Preparing personnel to work with persons with severe disabilities (pp. 227–240). Paul H. Brookes.

44.

Satcher

(1992). Responding to employer concerns about the ADA and job applicants with disabilities. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 23(3), 37–40. https://doi.org/10.1891/0047-2220.23.3.37

45.

Satcher

Hendren

G. R.

(1992). Employer agreement with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990: Implications for rehabilitation counseling. Journal of Rehabilitation, 58(3), 13–17.

46.

Schriner

K. F.

Greenwood

Johnson

V. A.

(1989). Counselor perceptions of employer concerns about workers with disabilities and employer–rehabilitation partnerships. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 33(2), 140–150.

47.

Scorzelli

J. F.

(1995). The use of a job task analysis in assessing the perceptions of human resource managers on the role of the rehabilitation counselor in industry. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 26(1), 47–50. https://doi.org/10.1891/0047-2220.26.1.47

48.

Simonsen

Fabian

Luecking

(2015). Employer preferences in hiring youth with disabilities. Journal of Rehabilitation, 81(1), 9–18.

49.

Smith

M. D.

Belcher

R. G.

Juhrs

P. D.

(1995). A guide to successful employment for individuals with autism. Paul H. Brookes.

50.

Stensrud

(2007). Developing relationships with employers means considering the competitive business environment and the risks it produces. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 50(4), 226–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/00343552070500040401

51.

Swanson

S. J.

Becker

D. R.

Bond

G. R.

(2013). Job development guidelines in supported employment. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 36(2), 122–123. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0094988

52.

Test

D. W.

Wood

W. M.

(1997). Rocket science 101: What supported employment specialists need to know about systematic instruction. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 9(2), 109–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1052-2263(97)00033-0

53.

Trach

J. S.

Sheldon

D. L.

(1999). Natural supports as a foundation for supports-based employment development and facilitation. American Rehabilitation, 25(2), 2–7.

54.

Trotter

Minkoff

Harrison

Hoops

(1988). Supported work: An innovative approach to the vocational rehabilitation of persons who are psychiatrically disabled. Rehabilitation Psychology, 33(1), 27–36. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0091690

55.

Unger

(2007). Addressing employer personnel needs and improving employment training, job placement and retention for individuals with disabilities through public–private partnerships. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 26(1), 39–48.

56.

U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2018). Vocational rehabilitation: Additional federal information could help states serve employers and find jobs for people with disabilities. https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-18-577.pdf

57.

Vandergoot

(1997). Placement practice labor markets for clients with disabilities. In Lunsdale

(Ed.), The Hatherleigh guide to vocational and career counseling (pp. 80–107). Hatherleigh Press.

58.

Wehman

Avellone

(2021). Supported employment and customized employment. In Strauser

D. R.

(Ed.), Career development, employment, and disability in rehabilitation: From theory to practice (2nd ed., pp. 261–272). Springer.