To join the rebuild or not? An exploration of the factors influencing the public's intention to participate in urban renewal

Abstract

Due to the lack of trust in the builder and indeterminate benefits, it is a struggle for people in Taiwan to make up their minds to participate in urban renewal. This leads to the completion rate of urban renewal of fewer than one ten-thousandth of the new construction needed. This study investigated the perspective on the research variables for people in Taiwan and how those influence their intention to participate in urban renewal. Using the Theory of Planned Behavior, the research framework is designed with the trust of urban renewal project builders and the perceived benefits of public participation as the independent variables. Attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control are the mediating variables, and the general public's intention to participate in urban renewal is the dependent variable. A total of 545 valid questionnaires were collected through the survey. The results showed that the respondents’ trust in the builder of the urban renewal project positively and significantly influenced their perceived benefits of the project, and the respondents’ trust in the builder significantly influenced their subjective norms. The perceived benefits positively and significantly affected their attitudes and subjective norms, and people's attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control positively and significantly affected their intention to participate in urban renewal. People's perceived benefits in urban renewal projects affected their participation intention through attitudes and subjective norms. The variable perceived benefits most strongly influenced people's intention to participate in urban renewal in this study. This study provides practical suggestions for the government and builders to increase people's intention to participate in urban renewal. This study modeled two independent variables, trust in the builder and perceived benefits, under the urban renewal context in Taiwan. In future works, other factors could be included, such as tax incentives, floor area rewards, and fair appraisal.

Keywords

Old and dangerous rebuilding urban renewal builder trust perceived benefits theory of planned behavior sustainable building

Introduction

Urban renewal is one of the main issues in urban development around the world today. The United Nations Development Program¹ launched by the United Nations in 2015 aims to reach the global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The program calls for inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable cities and settlements that promote economic growth, social cohesion, and environmental protection. The concept of Urban Renewal was first introduced by the American economist Miles² in his book 1953. Subsequently, urban renewal studies have been proposed by scholars around the world.^3–5 According to the statistics, there are about 4,360,000 households in Taiwan with an average age of over 30 years. Older buildings imply inadequate life functions, disaster prevention, and relief functions. The lack of elevator lift equipment and other public safety problems are not convenient for the elderly to move around. This has resulted in dozens of major fire and earthquake incidents that have affected the nation over the past 30 years, and the urgent need to accelerate the renewal of older buildings.⁶

This article discusses urban renewal issues, which are mainly divided into two types of renewal cases: urban renewal cases and old and dangerous renovation cases. Those are unified in this article as urban renewal cases. In terms of the current status of implementation in Taiwan's six major cities, the urban renewal ordinance has been enacted and amended for more than 20 years. Each local government has set up a single window to promote urban renewal projects. Taking Taipei City as an example, the Taipei City Urban Renewal Office is in charge of urban renewal promotion and counseling. In summary, as of August 31, 2021, 951 urban renewal cases have been approved in the past years. The total number of approved urban renewal cases is 1700. The total number of urban renewal cases received but not yet approved is 3188. The cumulative number of applications for urban renewal projects reached 2237. Taipei City is the most active in terms of applications and approvals. A total of 738 applications have been received and 534 have been approved. Although the number of applications is the highest in the history of the city. However, the completion rate of urban renewal is still less than one ten-thousandths of the new construction needed.⁷

A review of many reported cases in Taiwan shows that in the process of urban renewal, especially at the early stage of urban renewal integration, most people in the community are expectant and wait-and-see attitude toward the urban renewal projects under integration. However, urban renewal issues in the community are multifaceted. The reasons for the community's wait-and-see attitude toward urban renewal can be summarized by the following key factors:

People in the community have little trust in the builder. This may be due to inconsistent opinions on fair value appraisals such as evaluation and construction costs.

The controversial distribution of urban renewal benefits leads to the uncooperative behaviors of reluctant households (commonly known as “nail households”). As a result, urban renewal cases have become more difficult to promote.⁸

People's intention to participate in urban renewal varies from their attitudes, social pressures from friends and family, and their capabilities to undertake urban renewal.

In Taiwan's construction industry, developers refer to land developers, whose main job is to acquire land and evaluate the benefits before and after the construction investment. The builders’ business is to pay for the acquisition of land. Also, they are in charge of the overall planning of the building project, sales, and selection of building materials and equipment. Developers take care of most of the initial work of building projects, as the development process of land consolidation is lengthy. In addition, builders rarely communicate door-to-door in the early stages of a building project. Most of the communication is done by small and medium-sized brokerage developers. However, this stage of the urban renewal integration process is the most important in terms of gaining the community's approval. This takes a lot of time and effort with well communication skills and much patience. In other words, this is also the most difficult moment to get all urban renewal residents to sign up to participate in urban renewal reconstruction (or joint construction or contracted construction).

There are even several urban renewal integration groups and small companies in the community at the same time, which result in the private transfer of interests between each urban renewal company and individual community residents. This has led to whispered disagreements and mutual suspicion and mistrust among urban renewal tenants, and even conflicts of interest between urban renewal integration groups have been reported. There were even incidents of social security violence that received media attention.⁹ Therefore, when the situation could not be solved, the so-called “nail households” phenomenon was created as shown in Figures 1 and 2.

Figure 1.

After urban renewal project on Nanjing East Road.

Figure 2.

After urban renewal project at Songshan Yongchun.

The need for participant support and trust in urban renewal cases is critical. Bureaucracies may not understand how to provide such services to the public. The public perceives many difficulties in applying and proceeding with cases due to biases against commercial interests.¹⁰ Scholars have also explored this phenomenon in depth. For example, Lee¹¹ mentions that urban renewal is not only an issue of industrial and economic development, but also a social, cultural, and political aspect that must be considered in addition to housing policy. In addition, Ben and Huang¹² point out that trust in the builder is the most important factor influencing people's overall trust in urban renewal, and has a mediating effect between urban renewal awareness and overall trust in urban renewal. In addition, Chen et al.¹³ also pointed out that builders’ corporate image is an important factor affecting customer-perceived benefits, customer loyalty, and customer satisfaction ratings. In other words, in the process of promoting urban renewal projects, builders usually put their own benefits as the primary consideration. However, those who are involved in urban renewal have to face the issues of insufficient information, financial resources, and professional capabilities. Also, there has been a lack of relevant empirical research in this area.

This study intends to address the scientific question by using sample statistics to reason and provide a quantitative estimator of a population. Therefore, this study investigates whether people's trust and perceived benefits in urban renewal cases affect their attitudes and subjective norms of urban renewal participation. In turn, this study examines whether the perceived behavioral control of urban renewal participants affects their intention to participate in urban renewal cases promoted by builders. In this study, the research hypotheses were developed through literature. A research model and a questionnaire scale are developed. The research data will be collected through a questionnaire survey and then analyzed by Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)^14,15 to verify the research hypotheses. This study will provide theoretical support on whether the trust in the builder and the perceived benefits of the project affect the general public's intention to participate in the urban renewal project.

Literature review

This study focuses on the factors influencing Taiwanese people's intention to participate in urban renewal projects in the context of urban renewal studies in Taiwan. The article includes a study of constructive definitions of trust, perceived benefits, participation attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and intention to participate in urban renewal.

Trust of the builder: Trust has been defined differently in different research fields and contexts.^16–18 Rotter¹⁹ analyzed the positive effects of a high level of trust in general interpersonal interactions. The study defines trust as the ability to trust someone without a clear reason. Rotter presented an interesting finding that people with higher levels of trust are less likely to be deceived. Also, if one person trusts another person, it means that people believe that the other person will not intentionally use the information to their disadvantage.²⁰ Bradach and Eccles²¹ examined three mechanisms that control trading behavior: price, authority, and trust, and concluded that trust is an expectation that mitigates the fear of speculation in a trading partner. Trust is an attitude of dependence on the other party because of a long-term positive expectation of the other party, which is not lost even when a negative event occurs.²² This definition is very similar to loyalty.^23,24 Taking the above definitions together, this study defines trust in the builder as the positive attitude of the public toward the builder. Trust in the actions and words of builders will not be used as an opportunity to harm people's interests in urban renewal.

Trust plays a positive role in shaping the experience of building a city and improving its viability as it increases public participation and manageability in the community.²⁵ Trust can play a positive role in building consensus and cooperation in public spheres,^26,27 including urban renewal²⁸ and public construction.²⁹ For example, Newton³⁰ explores solutions for the regeneration of aging suburbs in Australian cities, which mentions that trust connects people to others and that people who work with trusted people are more likely to volunteer their time and energy to the work. In addition, Wang et al.³¹ analyzed the intention to use public buildings in smart cities. The study mentions that public trust in the builders of public buildings is related to the intention to use public buildings. Furthermore, Yi et al.³² examined sustainable urban renewal (SUR) policies in Shenzhen, China. The study suggests that trust plays an important role in promoting urban renewal. The study mentions that public trust is somehow related to the promotion of public construction. Therefore, this study examines the effect of trust in builders as a dependent variable on the public's intention to participate in urban renewal.

Perceived benefits: Perceived benefits are defined as the potential benefits that may be gained from participating in an activity or collaborative project. The higher the perceived benefits, the higher the people's intention to participate in the activity.³³ Perceived benefits refer to the perceived likelihood of gain, and people who perceive themselves to be better off expect to take positive actions that will lead to more favorable outcomes.³⁴ In the study of Tsujikawa et al.,³⁵ perceived benefits are perceived emotions that positively influence an individual's behavior. It is perceived as the extent to which the individual or community will benefit from the collaborative project. With the boom in urbanization, the demand for public participation in urban renewal in cities is on the rise. The importance of the perceived benefits of construction projects is also increasing.³⁶ In summary, this study defines perceived benefits as the perceived perceptions of potential benefits, advantages, and positive impacts in an urban renewal project.

Mueller³⁷ research on an empirical study of public perceptions of collaborative projects. The results show that trust has a significant impact on risk expectations, perceived benefits, and attitudes. The findings further suggest that planning authorities and construction operators have a role to play by providing an open channel of information and a fair mechanism for participation. Local residents affected by construction projects must have a trusting relationship with them. Nahm et al.³⁸ investigated the relationship between workers’ trust in builders and their perceived benefits in the Midwestern region of the US. The results of the study indicated that trust in builders positively and significantly affects their perceived benefits. Scholars mentioned that perceived benefits are negatively correlated with perceived risks,³⁹ that is, reducing perceived risks contributes to perceived benefits. Choi et al.⁴⁰ investigated the effects of perceived benefits and perceived risks on behavioral intentions and found that reducing perceived risks and increasing perceived benefits could positively and significantly affect behavioral intentions. In addition, Dai et al.⁴¹ investigated the factors influencing people's participation in urban infrastructure projects in Wuhan, China. This study mentioned that trust in infrastructure builders was associated with perceived benefits and that perceived benefits had a positive and significant effect on the intention to participate. In summary, each study scenario indicates that trust in service and product providers affects the perceived benefits of the study participants. Therefore, when people's trust in the builder increases, their perceived benefits of new urban renewal projects will also increase. So, the following hypothesis is proposed. H1:

The public's trust in the builder will positively and significantly affect their perceived benefits in participating in urban renewal.

Theory of planned behavior: The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)³³ evolved from the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA),⁴² which describes and predicts human behavior. The Theory of Reasoned Action assumes that people need to think rationally before making a behavioral decision. The theory proposes several important constructs to explain the factors that influence people's behavioral decision-making. These include attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, which are modeled as related external generative constructs that lead to behavioral intentions.³³ Intentions are considered to be important predictors of human behavior and have a decisive influence on behavior. The Theory of Planned Behavior presents a stable and consistent relationship between the constructs and has strong explanatory power. It has a significant and far-reaching impact on academic research and continues to occupy an important position in the field of social sciences. It has a wide range of applications and an important academic impact on many fields such as education, human resources, business management, psychology, and society.

Ajzen³³ defined attitude as an individual's positive or negative evaluation of behavior and is a multivariate concept.⁴³ Many studies define attitudes in terms of feeling and affective facets, which usually entails assessing some significant behaviors through respondents, such as good, wise, or pleasant descriptions of various contexts.^43,44 Reuveni and Werner⁴⁵ define attitudes as based on a person's evaluations and beliefs. It is a psychological tendency to express approval or disapproval of a particular issue. In addition, subjective norms were originally defined as the social pressure experienced by an individual.³³ Cialdini et al.⁴⁶ showed that subjective norms are a manifestation of an individual's perception of the behavior of others. It also represents the individual's motivation to do the same thing. Greaves et al.⁴⁷ concluded that the stronger the expectation from the person who is important to them, the more likely the individual is to engage in that particular behavior. Furthermore, Ajzen³³ identified perceived behavioral control as an assessment of an individual's self-efficacy and perceived control over the completion of behavior. People's control over their ability to accomplish specific tasks includes practical realistic considerations such as economy, skills, knowledge, time, and experience.

Related studies mention that trust affects attitudes. Midden and Huijts⁴⁸ found that trust in builders affects the attitudes of the general public. That is, the more trust the builder has in the participants, the more positive and significant the effect on the attitude of the participants. Nam and Woo⁴⁹ studied the effect of different types of trust on the attitude toward welfare taxation in Taiwan and South Korea and mentioned that trust in government affects people's attitudes toward welfare taxation. Therefore, this study also suggests that when people's trust in builders increases, people's attitudes toward urban renewal will also increase. So, the following hypothesis is proposed. H2:

The public's trust in the builder will positively and significantly affect their attitudes.

In Zhang et al.⁵⁰ study of the public acceptance model of self-driving cars. The results of the study found that public trust has a positive and significant effect on subjective norms. Second, Roh et al.⁵¹ investigated the factors influencing the behavioral intention of organic food consumption and found that trust has a positive effect on subjective norms. Therefore, this study also suggests that when people's trust in the builder increases, their subjective norms toward the project will also increase. So, the following hypothesis is proposed. H3:

The public's trust in the builder will positively and significantly influence their subjective norms

Engriani and Novaris⁵² investigated the effect of consumers’ perceived benefits, and trust on their attitudes toward the Shopee website. The results of this study found that perceived benefits had a positive and significant effect on consumers’ attitudes toward the Shopee website. Secondly, Lee⁵³ investigated the success and resistance factors of customers’ adoption of internet banking and found that perceived benefits had a positive and significant effect on customers’ attitudes. In summary, the perceived benefits of different contexts will affect their attitudes. Therefore, this study also suggests that people's perceived benefits of urban renewal can affect their attitudes toward urban renewal. When people's perceived benefits of a project increases, their attitudes toward urban renewal projects will also increase. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed. H4:

The public's perceived benefits in urban renewal projects will positively and significantly influence their attitudes

Nikita⁵⁴ examined the factors that influence the retention of existing customers and attraction of potential new customers in internet banking. The results showed that the perceived benefits of customers significantly influenced their subjective norms. Secondly, Gong et al.⁵⁵ studied people's intention to use online health services. The results indicate that trust in health services affects subjective norms through the mediating effect of perceived benefits. In the aforementioned study on the influence of perceived benefits on subjective norms, one direct effect is valid and one indirect effect is valid. Therefore, this study also suggests that the perceived benefits of urban renewal will affect the subjective norm. When people's perceived benefits of the project increase, their subjective norms of the urban renewal project will also increase. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed. H5:

The public's perceived benefits in urban renewal cases positively and significantly affects their subjective norms

The influence of behavioral attitudes on their intention has been confirmed in several studies related to The Theory of Planned Behavior.^56,57 Alam et al.⁵⁸ combined the Theory of Planned Behavior and the Technology Acceptance Model to investigate the factors influencing the use of mobile banking by Malaysian bank customers. The results show that customers’ attitudes toward mobile banking positively and significantly affect their intention to use it. Abdullah and Yu⁵⁹ examined the influence of attitudes toward counterfeit luxury goods on the purchase intentions of Yeman students in China. The results indicated that attitudes toward real luxury goods affect their purchase intention toward counterfeit luxury goods. In summary, it was found that attitudes in different contexts affect their behavioral intentions. Therefore, this study also suggests that people's attitudes toward urban renewal affect their intention to participate in urban renewal. As people's attitudes toward urban renewal projects become more positive, their intention to participate in urban renewal projects will also increase. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed. H6:

The public's attitudes toward urban renewal projects will positively and significantly influence their intention to participate in urban renewal.

Jia et al.⁶⁰ used the local community of Qilian Mountain National Park to investigate the effect of subjective norms on the intention to participate in the community. The results showed that subjective norms positively and significantly influenced their intention to participate. In addition, in order to enhance the intention of Malaysians to continuously participate in online communities, Hajli et al.⁶¹ surveyed how the three variables in the Theory of Planned Behavior, perceived behavioral control, subjective norms, and attitudes affected the participation intention. The results found that there is an impact on the intention to continuously participate in online communities. The results indicated that subjective norms positively and significantly influenced their intention to stay engaged in online communities. Taken together, the above studies suggest that subjective norms in different contexts affect their intention. Therefore, this study also suggests that people's subjective norms about urban renewal affect their intention to participate in urban renewal, and when people's subjective norms about the project increase, their intention to participate in the new urban renewal project also increases. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed. H7:

The public's subjective norms about urban renewal projects will positively and significantly influence their intention to participate in urban renewal.

Shiet al.,⁶² in a study of urban-rural development integration, suggested that perceived behavioral control refers to how easy it is for people to participate in the project in the study. This means that the more confident people are in their ability to participate in a project, the fewer possible barriers they expect to have to participate, and the more intentions are significantly stimulated. To increase customers’ willingness to actively recycle end-of-life goods for refurbishment and reuse, Kianpour et al.⁶³ investigated the effects of customers’ attitudes toward participation, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control on the intention to recycle end-of-life goods through the Decomposed Theory of Planned Behavior. The results showed that customers’ perceived behavioral control positively and significantly influenced their intention to recycle end-of-life goods. From the above two studies, it was found that the perceived behavioral control of the subjects in different contexts affects their behavioral intentions. Therefore, this study also suggests that people's perceived behavioral control of urban renewal also affects their intention to participate in urban renewal. When people's perceived behavioral control over urban renewal projects increases, their intention to participate in urban renewal projects will also increase. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed. H8:

The public's perceived behavioral control of urban renewal projects will positively and significantly influence their intention to participate in urban renewal.

This study suggests that the trust and perceived benefits of the public in the builder have a positive and significant effect on the attitudes and subjective norms of the public toward the project. The theory of planned behavior suggests that attitudes and subjective norms positively and significantly influence people's intention to participate in the project. It can be inferred from the above that people's trust and perceived benefits in the builder will influence their intention to participate in the urban renewal project through attitudes and subjective norms. Also, there is a mediating effect between the trust in the builder and people's perceived benefits and intention to participate in the urban renewal project. Therefore, the following four hypotheses are proposed in this study.

H9:

The public's trust in the builder will positively and significantly influence their intention to participate in urban renewal through the mediating effect of their attitudes.

H10:

The public's perceived benefits of the urban renewal project will positively and significantly influence their intention to participate through the mediating effect of their attitudes.

H11:

The public's trust in the builder will positively and significantly influence their intention to participate in urban renewal through the mediating effect of subjective norms.

H12:

The public's perceived benefits of the urban renewal project will positively and significantly influence their intention to participate in urban renewal through the mediating effect of their subjective norms.

Research design

Research framework: In this study, trust in the builder and perceived benefits of participating in urban renewal were used as independent variables, and attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control were used as mediating variables. The influence of these variables on the intention to participate in urban renewal was investigated. Based on the literature in Chapter 2, the structure of this study is shown in Figure 3.

Research subjects and data collection: The target population of this study was the members of the Line Instant Messaging App group in Taiwan. The survey was conducted using an online electronic questionnaire distributed through the LINE app group to unspecified targets. A total of 545 valid questionnaires were collected during April 20, 2022 to May 1, 2022. According to the sample formula of Creative Research Systems,⁶⁴ a minimum sample size of 384 or more is required for the total population in Taiwan with a confidence level of 95% and a confidence interval of 5%.

Description of study variables and measurement tools: The variables in this study included: basic personal background, trust, perceived benefits, attitudes, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and intention to participate in urban renewal. The variables were measured on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7). The basic background of the individual and the design of each variable scale is described below. This study focuses on people's intention to participate in urban renewal. Demographic data includes gender, occupation, marital status, ownership of the real estate, education level, and average monthly income, which are categorized as follows.

Gender: Male, female. 2 items.

Occupation: Freelance, self-employed, office worker, public employee, industrial and commercial, and others. 6 items.

Marital status: Married, unmarried. 2 items.

Whether you own real estate: Yes, no. 2 items.

Educational level: Junior high school, high school/vocational high school, college or university, graduate school. 4 items.

Average monthly income: 50,000 (including the below), 50,000–99,999, 100,000–199,999, 200,000 (including the above). 4 items.

For the study variables, the trust of the builders was referred to as the trust scale of Akrout and Nagy⁶⁵ and Robson et al.⁶⁶ The scale questions were modified according to the needs of the urban renewal study context, such as “I trust the quality of the urban renewal builder's products,” “The urban renewal builder is honest with the urban renewal participants,” and “The urban renewal builder will take care of the interests of the urban renewal participants during the urban renewal.” Five questions were designed in total. Perceived benefits refer to Oña et al.⁶⁷ and Lin et al.⁶⁸ for the scale of the same variable. The questions of the scale were modified according to the needs of the urban renewal research context, such as “I think the relationship between costs and benefits of participating in urban renewal is appropriate,” “I have an advantage in participating in urban renewal than building it myself,” and “I think the process of urban renewal is more efficient than building it myself.” Six questions were designed in total. Attitudes were referred to on the scale of the same variable by Jiang et al.⁶⁹ and López-Mosquera et al.⁷⁰ The scale questions were modified according to the needs of the urban renewal research context as “I have a good feeling about participating in urban renewal,” “I think it is a wise decision to participate in urban renewal,” and “I think the idea of participating in urban renewal is very useful.” A total of 6 questions were designed. The subjective norms were based on Abbasi et al.⁷¹ and Kim and Han⁷² scale of the same variable. The scale was modified according to the needs of the urban renewal research context by asking questions such as “People who are important to me think I should participate in urban renewal,” “People who are important to me would support my decision to participate in urban renewal,” and “People who are important to me would support my decision if I participate in urban renewal.” A total of 5 questions were designed. The perceived behavioral control was referred to by Fichten et al.⁷³ and Jang et al.⁷⁴ for the scale of the same variable. The scale questions were modified according to the needs of the urban renewal research context, such as “Once I decide, I can overcome any obstacles or problems in participating in urban renewal,” “If I want, I am confident that I can participate in urban renewal,” and “I have enough money to participate in urban renewal.” A total of 6 questions were designed. The intention to participate in urban renewal was based on Zhou⁷⁵ eponymous scale and Jang et al.⁷⁴ behavioral intention scale. The questions were modified according to the needs of the urban renewal study context, such as “I would like to participate in urban renewal projects if there are any,” “I would encourage neighbors to give their opinions and suggestions to promote urban renewal cases,” and “I would communicate with neighbors and contribute ideas to promote urban renewal.” A total of 6 questions were designed.

Data analysis: The study variables in the questionnaire were mainly continuous. The results of the questionnaire were analyzed using structural equation modeling as the statistical analysis method. SPSS 24.0 and AMOS 24.0 were used as the software statistical analysis tools. The statistical analysis was divided into three stages. First, the descriptive statistical analysis consisted of the analysis of the basic data of the sample and the analysis of the results of the answers. Next, the measurement model validation consisted of reliability and validity checks of the questionnaire items. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to examine the reliability of the questions and constructs. Differences between the constructs were verified by discriminant validity. In the last stage, structural equation modeling was used to test the research hypotheses. The fit of the study model to the sample is first verified by the model fit. Then, the regression coefficients between the variables are examined by path analysis. Finally, the mediation effect is examined.

Research results

Based on the recommendations of Khaw et al.⁷⁶ and Cho et al.,⁷⁷ this study used Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to analyze the research data (Figure 4). The study was divided into two phases. Descriptive Analysis was first used to present the distribution of sample data. Then, structural equation modeling is used for the examination and analysis. The SEM was divided into two stages. First, the measurement model is examined, which consists of a reliability test of the scale. Then the structural model is examined, which includes the examination of the model fit and the path analysis of the research hypotheses.^78,79

Item statistical analysis: The average values are all between 4.320 and 5.580. The standard deviations of all questions are between 1.290 and 1.670, showing the consistency of each question that the participants responded to. The skewness ranged from −0.411 to 1.350, and the kurtosis valued from −0.336 to −1.121, which are consistent with the suggestions that the absolute value of skewness is less than 2 and the absolute value of kurtosis is less than 7.⁸⁰

Descriptive analysis: In this study, online questionnaires were distributed and a total of 545 valid questionnaires were collected during the study period, as shown in Table 1. Among the collected questionnaires, the gender of the sample was mostly male, with 283 people (51.9%). In terms of occupational distribution, the majority of respondents were office workers, with 261 respondents (47.9%). Regarding marital status, the majority of respondents were married, with 452 respondents (82.9%). In addition, as many as 80.6% of the respondents owned their real estate, and the majority of the real estate ownership questionnaire was “yes,” with 439 respondents (80.6%). The majority of respondents with education level are in graduate school (or above), with 248 respondents (45.5%). As for the income survey, the majority of respondents had a monthly income (NT) of NT$100,000–NT$199,999, with a total of 209 respondents (38.3%).

Structural equation modeling

Measurement model inspection

Convergent validity: The validity of astringency in this study was measured using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), which measures the reliability of the items and constructs as well as the validation analysis of astringency. Fornell and Larcker⁸¹ proposed several indicators to assess the convergent validity of the measurement model, including Standardized Factor Loading (Std), Squared Multiple Correlation (SMC), Composite Reliability (CR), and Average Variance Extracted (AVE). As shown in Table 2, the standardized factor loadings (Std) of Item Reliability for all the questions presented in this study ranged from 0.601 to 0.936, which means that all the questions were in a reasonable range. In addition, the compositional reliability (CR) of all the constructs ranged from 0.877 to 0.97. The CR of all the constructs was found to be internally consistent, as suggested by Nunnally.⁸² Finally, the average variance extracted (AVEs) of all the statistical averages in this study ranged from 0.591 to 0.843. The average variance extracted (AVE) values of 0.591–0.843 exceeded those suggested by Hair et al.⁸³ and Fornell and Larcker.⁸¹ Therefore, it shows the convergent validity of all the constructs in this study.

Discriminant validity: Fornell and Larcker⁸¹ concluded that the structural model analysis should be preceded by a discriminant validity analysis between the constructs. A relatively rigorous AVE method should be used to examine the discriminant validity. In other words, the square root of AVE for a particular construct is larger than Pearson's correlation coefficient of the corresponding constructs, which indicates that it is consistent with the discriminant validity of the constructs. As shown in Table 3, the bold numbers on the diagonal line indicate the square root of the AVE, which is mostly larger than the numbers on the non-diagonal line, so it can be judged that the structural model design of this study is acceptable.

Structural model inspection

Model fit: In a previous study, the 8 most common model-fitting indices were found in 194 papers in international journals.⁸⁴ According to their study, χ2, DF, Normed Chi-square (χ2/DF), RMSEA, TLI (NNFI), CFI, GFI, and AGFI are the most common indices used to test the fit of research models. In the studies of Schumacker and Lomax⁸⁵ and Kline,⁸⁰ it is noted that SEM is used for large sample analysis. However, if the sample size is larger than 200, the KAI will be over-inflated and the model will not fit well. In this study, we used Bollen and Stine⁸⁶ to correct the SEM cardinality so that the Normed Chi-square (χ2/DF) <3. As shown in Table 4, the model in this study met the criteria suggested by all the above studies.

Path analysis: Table 5 shows the results of the path coefficients. It also shows that Trust of the Builder (TOB) significantly affects Perceived Benefits (PBT) with a non-standardized regression coefficient of b = 0.521 and p-value <0.001. Secondly, Trust of the Builder (TOB) did not significantly affect Attitudes (ATT) with a non-standardized regression coefficient of b = 0.033 and p-value > 0.05. Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC) significantly affects attitudes with a non-standardized regression coefficient of b = 1.045 and p-value <0.001. Again, trust in the builder significantly affects subjective norms (SBN) with a non-standardized regression coefficient of b = 0.136 and p-value = 0.014. Further, perceived benefits significantly affect Subjective Norms (SBN) with a non-standardized regression coefficient of b = 1.012 and p-value <0.001. Attitudes significantly influenced Intention to Participate in Urban Renewal (IUR) with a non-standardized regression coefficient of b = 0.150 and a p-value <0.001. Subjective norms significantly influenced Intention to Participate in Urban Renewal (IUR) with a non-standardized regression coefficient of b = 0.362 and a p-value <0.001. Finally, perceived behavioral control significantly influenced the intention to participate in urban renewal with a non-standardized regression coefficient of b = 0.472 and a p-value of <0.001.

The results of the path coefficient analysis significantly support the hypothesis of this study. The study construct assumes that the explanatory power of builder trust in IOT on perceived benefits is 37.5%. The explanatory power of builders’ trust and perceived benefits on attitudes was 59.9%. The explanatory power of builders’ trust and perceived benefits on subjective norms was 57.6%. Attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control explained 63.5% of intention to participate in urban renewal.

Analysis of mediation effects: To avoid insufficient data randomization and sample reduction due to Cross-Validation, this study used Bootstrapping Statistics^87,88 to reduce bias in the analysis process. The statistical confidence interval of a better indirect effect can be obtained by using repeated sampling. It is also better than other mediation measurement methods. As shown in Table 6, the builder trust → attitudes → intention to participate in urban renewal (IUR) was first examined, p > 0.05 and the confidence interval includes 0 ([−0.022 0.042]). Therefore, the hypothesis of the existence of indirect effects is not supported. Second, the builder trust → subjective norms (SBN) → intention to participate in urban renewal (IUR) was examined, p > 0.05, with a confidence interval including 0 ([−0.023 0.134]). Therefore, the hypothesis of the existence of indirect effects is not supported. Further, the indirect effect of perceived benefits (PBT) → attitudes (ATT) → intention to participate in urban renewal (IUR) was examined. The p < 0.05, confidence interval does not include 0 ([0.062 0.276]), therefore, the indirect effect exists. Finally, indirect effects perceived benefits (PBT) → subjective norm (SBN) → intention to participate in urban renewal (IUR) was examined. The p < 0.05, confidence interval (CI) does not include 0 ([0.234 0.537]). Therefore, indirect effects exist.

Figure 3.

Research framework.

Figure 4.

SEM statistical model diagram.

Table 1.

Frequency distribution.

Category	Classification	Frequency distribution	Percentage
Gender	Female	262	48.1
Gender	Male	283	51.9
Occupation	Freelance	51	9.4
	Self-employed	77	14.1
	Office worker	261	47.9
	Public employee	36	6.6
	Others	120	22.0
Marriage	Married	452	82.9
Marriage	Unmarried	93	17.1
Estate	Yes	439	80.6
Estate	No	106	19.4
Education	Junior high school (including the below)	5	.9
	High school/vocational high	243	44.6
	College or university	49	9.0
	Graduate school	248	45.5
Income	50,000 (including the below)	140	25.7
	50,000–99,999	55	10.1
	100,000–199,999	209	38.3
	200,000 (including the above)	141	25.9

Table 2.

Results for the measurement model.

Construct	Item	Significance of estimated parameters				Item reliability		Construct reliability	Convergence validity
Construct	Item	Unstd.	S.E.	Unstd./S.E.	p-Value	Std.	SMC	CR	AVE
TOB	TOB1	1.000				0.798	0.637	0.936	0.746
	TOB2	1.311	0.052	25.104	0.000	0.902	0.814
	TOB3	1.431	0.056	25.755	0.000	0.919	0.845
	TOB4	1.323	0.055	24.225	0.000	0.882	0.778
	TOB5	1.297	0.060	21.442	0.000	0.810	0.656
PBT	PBT1	1.000				0.601	0.361	0.877	0.591
	PBT2	1.419	0.096	14.716	0.000	0.830	0.689
	PBT3	1.363	0.097	14.060	0.000	0.813	0.661
	PBT4	1.430	0.102	14.042	0.000	0.805	0.648
	PBT5	1.372	0.098	14.022	0.000	0.771	0.594
ATT	ATT1	1.000				0.844	0.712	0.970	0.843
	ATT2	1.055	0.034	30.839	0.000	0.931	0.867
	ATT3	1.083	0.035	30.880	0.000	0.933	0.870
	ATT4	1.076	0.035	31.019	0.000	0.936	0.876
	ATT5	1.104	0.036	30.767	0.000	0.932	0.869
	ATT6	1.073	0.035	30.443	0.000	0.928	0.861
SBN	SBN1	1.000				0.903	0.815	0.964	0.841
	SBN2	1.024	0.028	36.502	0.000	0.929	0.863
	SBN3	0.984	0.027	35.921	0.000	0.923	0.852
	SBN4	1.027	0.029	35.546	0.000	0.918	0.843
	SBN5	0.970	0.028	34.345	0.000	0.911	0.830
PBC	PBC1	1.000				0.723	0.523	0.897	0.592
	PBC2	1.161	0.068	17.106	0.000	0.759	0.576
	PBC3	1.202	0.060	19.954	0.000	0.873	0.762
	PBC4	1.273	0.080	15.957	0.000	0.723	0.523
	PBC5	1.327	0.078	16.997	0.000	0.770	0.593
	PBC6	1.306	0.077	16.935	0.000	0.757	0.573
IRU	IRU1	1.000				0.804	0.646	0.940	0.726
	IRU2	1.119	0.050	22.390	0.000	0.812	0.659
	IRU3	1.178	0.045	25.926	0.000	0.914	0.835
	IRU4	1.189	0.047	25.189	0.000	0.910	0.828
	IRU5	1.117	0.045	24.892	0.000	0.899	0.808
	IRU6	1.095	0.056	19.704	0.000	0.759	0.576

N.B.: Unstd. = unstandardized factor loadings; Std = standardized factor loadings; SMC = square multiple correlations; CR = composite reliability; AVE = average variance extracted; TOB = trust of the builder; PBT = perceived benefits; ATT = attitudes; SBN = subjective norms; PBC = perceived behavioral control; IUR = intention to participate in urban renewal.

Table 3.

Discriminant validity for the measurement model.

	AVE	TOB	PBT	ATT	SBN	PBC	IUR
TOB	0.746	0.864
PBT	0.591	0.612	0.769
ATT	0.843	0.491	0.774	0.918
SBN	0.841	0.530	0.754	0.585	0.917
PBC	0.592	0.535	0.327	0.263	0.283	0.769
IUR	0.726	0.544	0.600	0.537	0.656	0.600	0.852

N.B.: TOB = trust of the builder; PBT = perceived benefits; ATT = attitudes; SBN = subjective norms; PBC = perceived behavioral control; IUR = intention to participate in urban renewal. The items on the diagonal on bold represent the square roots of the AVE; off-diagonal elements are the correlation estimates.

Table 4.

Model fit criteria and the test results.

Index	Criteria	Model fit
χ2	The small the better	672.606
DF	The large the better	486
Normed Chi-square(χ2/DF)	<3	1.384
GFI	>0.9	0.966
AGFI	>0.9	0.959
CFI	>0.9	0.990
TLI(NNFI)	>0.9	0.989
RMSEA	<0.08	0.027

N.B.: CFI = comparative fit index; TLI = Tucker–Lewis Index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; GFI = goodness-of-fit index; NFI = normed-fit index; AGFI = adjusted goodness-of-fit index.

Table 5.

Regression coefficient.

DV	IV	Unstd	S.E.	Unstd./S.E.	p-Value	Std.	R2
PBT	TOB	0.521	0.050	10.509	0.000	0.612	0.375
ATT	TOB	0.033	0.051	0.634	0.526	0.028	0.599
ATT	PBT	1.045	0.088	11.869	0.000	0.757
SBN	TOB	0.136	0.056	2.446	0.014	0.109	0.576
SBN	PBT	1.012	0.088	11.495	0.000	0.688
IUR	ATT	0.150	0.040	3.731	0.000	0.169	0.635
IUR	SBN	0.362	0.043	8.443	0.000	0.435
	PBC	0.472	0.052	9.129	0.000	0.432

N.B.: TOB = trust of the builder; PBT = perceived benefits; ATT = attitudes; SBN = subjective norms; PBC = perceived behavioral control; IUR = intention to participate in urban renewal.

Table 6.

The analysis of indirect effects.

Effect	Point estimate	Product of coefficients			Bootstrap 1000 times
		Product of coefficients			Bias-corrected 95%
		S.E.	Z-Value	p-Value	Lower bound	Upper bound
TOB→ATT→IUR	0.005	0.016	0.305	0.760	−0.022	0.042
TOB→SBN→IUR	0.049	0.039	1.263	0.207	−0.023	0.134
PBT→ATT→IUR	0.156	0.058	2.710	0.007	0.062	0.276
PBT→SBN→IUR	0.366	0.079	4.636	0.000	0.234	0.537

N.B.: TOB = trust of the builder; PBT = perceived benefits; ATT = attitudes; SBN = subjective norms; PBC = perceived behavioral control; UR = intention to participate in urban renewal.

Conclusion and discussion

Theoretical contributions

Most studies on urban renewal in Taiwan focus on the laws and regulations. There are fewer statistical models proposed to verify the factors influencing urban renewal. In this study, the Theory of Planned Behavior is applied to analyze the influence of urban renewal on the intention to participate in urban renewal by using the factors of builders’ trust and perceived benefits, which are commonly investigated in urban renewal in Taiwan. The results show that perceived benefits are the main factors influencing the intention to participate in urban renewal. This will provide more practical implications for Taiwan's urban renewal department in the process of formulating related regulations.

An investigation of the trust and perceived benefits of the builder on attitudes and subjective norms: Among the direct hypotheses of H1 to H5, H1, H3, H4, and H5 were found to be valid except for H2, which was not valid. These four direct effects were found to be the same as the results of previous studies by Dai et al.,⁴¹ Roh et al.,⁵¹ Engriani and Novaris,⁵² and Gong et al.,⁵⁵ respectively. The results of this study show that brand recognition is more likely to be favored by the general urban renewal public before selecting a partner (co-builder, contractor, or urban renewal participant). Builders may be trusted by the public because of the stereotype that builders with a brand image are more stable. They are better able to take care of the benefits of the people involved in the project or to participate in the project with the builder. The general perception is that it is more effective than planning and building the project by themselves. However, the analysis of the data collected from the 545 valid questionnaires distributed throughout Taiwan and the validation of the TPB theoretical model yielded an interesting result. In addition to the brand image of the partner company, the public has further trust in the company. The public is more concerned about their own (perceived) benefits in the cooperation with the builder. Among previous research on trust affects attitudes Nam and Woo⁴⁹ argued that trust in government affects people's attitudes toward welfare taxation. In this study, however, the same hypothesis of the two constructs was not supported in the urban renewal context (H2). As Table 7. Item statistical analysis shows that the standard deviation value of TOB is less than 2, which means that the data values are more concentrated. In addition, the mean of each TOB question is greater than 4, which means that the respondents’ trust in the builder is mostly high and the variation is small. The higher trust in the builder may be caused by the simplicity of the people, the positive social atmosphere, the high quality of the people, the popularity of higher education, and the abundance of life in Taiwan. This stable atmosphere has led to a high level of interpersonal trust and respect for professionals. In addition, Taiwan has a relatively small percentage of collective disputes between builders and tenants. This may be why respondents believe trust would not be an issue in urban renewal. In other words, the people who participate in the cooperation project only need to feel better about their perceived benefits. The issue of trust in the builder is only considered after the public's perceived benefits have been satisfied. The results of this study seem to be different from the basic perception. The general public has long been exposed to commercial advertising. The general public has long been educated by commercial advertising and the general tradition of public integrity, and the trust of the builder (reputation) is the concept of the success of the partnership.

The project's behavioral theory model validates the general public's attitudes and intention to participate in urban renewal: All the direct hypotheses of H6, H7, and H8 were found to be valid. These three direct effects were found to be the same as those in previous studies by Abdullah and Yu,⁵⁹ Jia et al.,⁶⁰ and Shi et al.⁶² The above data show that the general public is highly motivated to participate in urban renewal cases, both in terms of their attitudes and their intention to participate in urban renewal. Further, as people's participation in urban renewal cases becomes more determined, their intention to participate also increases significantly. This is also a very positive signal for the government and the community in promoting urban renewal policy and community urban renewal integration.

The trust of the builder and the perceived benefits on the attitudes of the public toward the project, subjective norms, from the TPB model theory analysis study: This study examined whether the trust and perceived benefits of the public in the builder affect their intention to participate in urban renewal projects through their attitudes and subjective norms toward the project and whether there is a mediating effect. The results show that people's trust in the builder does not affect their intention to participate in urban renewal through attitudes and subjective norms, while people's perceived benefits affect their intention to participate through attitudes and subjective norms. Perceived benefits have both direct and indirect effects, whether through attitudes or subjective norms. Therefore, it is clear that the main influence on people's intention to participate in urban renewal is their perceived benefits. The mediating effect of subjective norms shows that when people themselves or their friends and relatives learn that a reputable builder with an honest brand is integrating urban renewal projects in their community. This influences their friends and relatives, and the public reflects a high level of interest in participating in urban renewal.

Practical contributions

Builders should explain to the public the benefits of participating in urban renewal: The results of this study can be used as an important reference for actively promoting urban renewal. In other words, the urban renewal process should be based on reasonable benefits for the public. Builders should make concessions to reach a win–win situation quickly. This will help to promote the urban renewal project smoothly and avoid the phenomenon of so-called nail households. The general public's motivation to participate in urban renewal is based on whether they can get the benefits. Currently, urban renewal cases can take at least five to ten years or even decades from the beginning of the proposal to obtaining the official use permit. It is very common for cases to end without resolution due to unresolved nail household issues. This may be due to the perception of the participating citizens that their reasonable benefits have not been met. From this study, we found that builders could consider the best benefits for the people in the community at the beginning of the integration proposal. If builders can design a plan that is appropriate for the people who participate in urban renewal, instead of promoting urban renewal projects based on the interests of the builders, it will be more likely to increase the willingness of the people to participate in urban renewal.

Favorable government policies and bills to keep up with the times: After more than 20 years of urban renewal legislation and amendments, and the timely implementation of the Urban Dangerous and Aging Buildings Accelerated Redevelopment Ordinance in 2017, the government has been working on several projects. The legislation and amendments to the Urban Renewal Ordinance and the Dangerous and Aging Ordinance were made in response to the barriers to the implementation of urban renewal in Taiwan. It is hoped that the urban renewal law will be more consistent and in the right direction for urban renewal implementation. However, the actual number of completed urban renewal cases is still below 1000 cases. The completion rate of urban renewal is extremely low. Moreover, the rate of urban renewal integration is not as fast as the rate and proportion of aging houses in Taiwan.

Most of the respondents in this study live in Taipei city or New Taipei city in Taiwan. The urgency of urban renewal in Taipei and Kaohsiung differs in the early economic development and urbanization in Northern Taiwan, but both cities need urban renewal because of similar factors, such as dangerous old buildings, earthquake threats, and rapid population growth. People's attitudes toward urban renewal are positive. People are positive about urban renewal if they perceive that it is profitable (perceived benefits). If people perceive that urban renewal is beneficial to them, then they will show a strong intention to participate in urban renewal. Government authorities have huge public administration resources. If the government can introduce more favorable laws and measures to promote urban renewal, it will be able to promote urban renewal more actively and quickly.

Research limitations and future research directions: This study adopts the modeling framework of the Theory of Planned Behavior. By combining academic and practical experience through quantitative research, we attempt to untangle the inhibitors of urban renewal promotion in Taiwan over the past decades. This study is based on a sample of Taiwanese domestic citizens, with only two components of trust in the builder and the perceived benefits of urban renewal projects. Future studies can include other factors that influence participation in urban renewal. For example, the proactive nature of regulations, the brand name or experience of the builder, and the use of the media by the authorities to expand positive publicity are all appropriate components. It is also possible to conduct questionnaires for people in other regions to compare with this study.

Table 7.

Item statistical analysis.

Variable	Mean	Std Dev	Kurtosis	Skewness
TOB1	4.790	1.212	−0.336	0.376
TOB2	4.440	1.405	−0.273	−0.075
TOB3	4.220	1.504	−0.138	−0.322
TOB4	4.320	1.449	−0.121	−0.411
TOB5	4.350	1.547	−0.138	−0.549
PBT1	4.670	1.367	−0.350	−0.318
PBT2	5.260	1.404	−0.778	0.261
PBT3	5.570	1.377	−1.193	1.350
PBT4	5.390	1.460	−0.895	0.403
PBT5	5.170	1.461	−0.557	−0.224
ATT1	5.200	1.348	−0.681	0.363
ATT2	5.580	1.290	−0.972	1.022
ATT3	5.460	1.321	−0.959	1.010
ATT4	5.500	1.309	−0.998	1.144
ATT5	5.460	1.349	−0.992	1.006
ATT6	5.540	1.317	−1.001	1.133
SBN1	5.240	1.343	−0.591	0.122
SBN2	5.300	1.336	−0.783	0.457
SBN3	5.330	1.292	−0.797	0.623
SBN4	5.230	1.356	−0.670	0.312
SBN5	5.420	1.291	−0.835	0.730
PBC1	5.120	1.310	−0.579	−0.080
PBC2	5.190	1.449	−0.753	0.135
PBC3	5.410	1.304	−0.803	0.496
PBC4	4.530	1.670	−0.380	−0.605
PBC5	4.560	1.633	−0.338	−0.600
PBC6	4.820	1.634	−0.587	−0.358
IRU1	5.470	1.371	−0.944	0.861
IRU2	5.250	1.518	−0.833	0.305
IRU3	5.340	1.421	−0.923	0.619
IRU4	5.210	1.440	−0.790	0.326
IRU5	5.340	1.370	−0.899	0.664
IRU6	4.620	1.590	−0.428	−0.371

N.B.: TOB = trust of the builder; PBT = perceived benefits; ATT = attitudes; SBN = subjective norms; PBC = perceived behavioral control; IUR = intention to participate in urban renewal.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

We would like to show our gratitude to all the reviewers and editors who have provided insightful comments and suggestions.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the National Science and Technology Council, Taiwan, R.O.C. [MOST 108-2628-E-011-005-MY2], [MOST 110-2221-E-011-02], and [MOST 111-2221-E-011-043].

ORCID iDs

Shih-Ming Lin

Hsin-Yun Lee

Hui-Ling Hu

Kun-Huang Chien

Author biographies

Shih-Ming Lin is now a doctoral student at the Department of Civil and Construction Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan, R.O.C. He is a CEO, with over 30-year experience, in charge of several architecture and construction companies. He is working on his doctoral dissertation on urban renewal issues.

Dr. Hsin-Yun Lee is a professor at the Department of Civil and Construction Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan, R.O.C. His current research field includes construction planning and strategies.

Dr. Hui-Ling Hu is the Secretary-general at the Quantitative Analysis and Research Association, Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Her research focuses on quantitative empirical research in the areas of tourism, internet marketing, and innovation.

Dr. Kun-Huang Chien is a researcher at the Department of Civil and Construction Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan, R.O.C. His current research field includes quantitative research, game-based learning, and big data.

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