Indigenous spirituality surrounding Serianthes trees in Micronesia: Traditional practice,conservation,and resistance

Introduction

Many Indigenous peoples ascribe to spiritual worldviews expressed through cultural practices and beliefs grounded in respect for the natural world (Dorpat, 2011; Harvey, 2005). Sacred connectedness to the land, the ocean, and the spiritual realm of nature is fundamental to coastal Indigenous worldviews (Snively and Williams, 2016). These worldviews hold that plants and humans have the capacity for mutual signaling and these communicative systems develop in a coevolutionary manner (Kimmerer, 2015; Kockelman, 2011). Indigenous spirituality, rituals, myths, and stories oftentimes express and record these relationships (Sepie, 2017). Interspecies phyto-communicability differs among cultures, as cultures interact and develop a specific relationship with plants by storing, adapting, and sharing patterns of communication and knowledge production (Goldstein, 2019; Schulthies, 2019, 2020). Similarly, the gathering of partitioned plant modalities (plant parts, such as leaves, fruits, seeds, wood, or roots) depends on place-specific interactions between humans and plants (Schulthies, 2019). This reciprocal interspecies relationship forms the basis of ecological consciousness and cultural sustainability (Kimmerer, 2015) and can offer insights in how Indigenous plant-human spiritual frameworks can guide conservation.

Micronesia, in the northwest Pacific Ocean, is part of the Micronesia-Polynesia biodiversity hotspot with high species endemism rates and biocultural diversity (Loh and Harmon, 2005; Myers et al., 2000; Figure 1). Many endemic species face extinction because of colonialism, economic development, and cultural globalization taking precedence over sustainability and biocultural preservation, a sad parallel to the traditional knowledge Indigenous peoples have held in relation to these species and other resources in the Pacific Islands. Christian missionaries impacted traditional Micronesian religions and the connections to their environmental knowledge systems. Despite these rapid changes, the Indigenous peoples of Micronesia maintain spiritual connections to the natural world. Similar to the Huni Kuĩ (Brazil) and the Māori (New Zealand) people, Micronesians follow the phyto-communicative model in which they recognize plants as participants in kinship structures (Goldstein, 2019; Rountree, 2012). Nature spirits and spiritual guides mediate plant-human interaction relating to traditional practices such as canoe building (Dobbin and Hezel, 2016). Nature spirits dwell around or can be place-bound. They are ancestral spirits of deities or spirits of the dead (Dobbin and Hezel, 2016).

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Figure 1.

Map of Micronesian islands.

In my own (E.D.) research, I study spirituality and rituals in relation to the conservation of Serianthes, a tree up to 35 m tall, occurring on four islands in Micronesia: Guåhan (Guam), Luta (Rota), Wa’ab (Yap), and Belau (Palau) (Figure 1). Guåhan and Luta are part of the Mariana Islands. Wa’ab is one of the four states of the Federated States of Micronesia. To honor and respect the Indigenous homelands of the Micronesian peoples, we use Indigenous place and plant names throughout this article to recognize their inextricable connection with the land and its people (Smith, 2012).

The ethnobotanical uses, spirituality and conservation practices surrounding Serianthes are different on each island. In Belau and Wa’ab, Serianthes kanehirae Fosberg is still abundant with one variety on Belau, Serianthes kanehirae var. kanehirae Fosberg and one variety on Wa’ab, Serianthes kanehirae var. yapensis Fosberg. The people from Belau and Wa’ab still use Serianthes today mainly for canoe carving, traditional meeting house construction, and medicine, keeping the rituals and cultural practices surrounding this tree alive. Serianthes nelsonii Merr. occurs on Guåhan and Luta and is listed as critically endangered under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). Guåhan has one remaining adult tree, while Luta’s total population comprises less than 35 trees. In Luta, S. nelsonii is a flagship species for endangered plant conservation. In Guåhan, S. nelsonii became the rallying point of Indigenous spiritual resistance because the habitat of the last adult S. nelsonii tree is threatened by the construction of a military firing range. Although the military has stated that they will not bulldoze the last tree, they are committing to preserving only a 100-foot buffer of forest around the tree. We will elaborate on the different traditional practices on each of the islands, the link with traditional governance, and why traditional knowledge and spirituality are important to conservation.

Our central research question asks how epistemological orientations based on Indigenous spirituality and phyto-communication can shape the protection and conservation efforts of endemic plant species, such as Serianthes, in Micronesia. To understand the importance of Indigenous spirituality and its integral connection to sustainable conservation and cultural identity (Fleming and Ledogar, 2008) we suggest the kosmos-corpus-praxis (K-C-P) as a conceptual framework because it provides a holistic approach to study Indigenous epistemology (Toledo, 1992).

Exploring Indigenous spirituality and conservation: an analysis of three ethnospheres

Ethnoecology uses the K-C-P conceptual framework to study the close relationship between traditional knowledge (corpus), practices (praxis), and cosmology (kosmos) (Barrera-Bassols and Toledo, 2005; Pauli et al., 2016; Toledo, 1992; Figure 2). The concept emphasizes that a culture gains individual, community, and generational knowledge by memory and experiential learning. This study analyzes the three ethnospheres in relation to spirituality and conservation of Serianthes. Ethnoecology further examines how traditional and scientific knowledge can generate a co-production of knowledge needed to battle today’s conservation challenges and protect biocultural diversity (Pauli et al., 2016; Snively and Williams, 2016).

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Figure 2.

The K-C-P complex based on Barrera-Bassols and Toledo (2005) and adapted from Pauli et al. (2016) illustrates the three ethnospheres and the ethnoscape. The curved words around each ethnosphere detail Indigenous knowledge and scientific knowledge (in pink) mentioned by the participants.

I (E.D.) conducted an ethnoecological field study of Serianthes on Luta, Guåhan, Wa’ab and Belau between April 2018 and December 2019. During structured interviews, I asked traditional ecological knowledge holders to answer a questionnaire about Serianthes. I conducted 14 interviews in Belau, 9 in Wa’ab, 7 in Luta, and 14 in Guåhan. The interviews reveal that traditional spirituality differs between and within island cultures, yet they provide evidence, albeit fragmentary, which I used to construct an overall picture of the importance of spirituality relating to conservation. When quoting interviewees, I have edited their statements for readability¹. Voucher specimens of the different Serianthes taxa were collected and submitted to the University of Guam Herbarium.

The results can be summarized as follows: (a) interspecies relationships, rituals, and oral history continue to guide ethnobotanical practices of Serianthes in Belau and Wa’ab; (b) co-production of knowledge can guide conservation practices of Serianthes in Guåhan and Luta; (c) Indigenous spirituality continues to be a fundamental value in all four island communities; and (d) Indigenous spirituality can guide more respectful and sustainable ways of interacting with the environment.

Being a long-time resident of Guåhan, an interdisciplinary scholar, and an environmental activist, I (E.D.) use a holistic research approach. The results of this ethnoecological study will be used together with social movement and phylogenetic data to advise on the development of conservation practices and policies for island endemic plants, using Serianthes as a model species in Micronesia.

The ukall of Belau and its people

Palauans’ relationships with the living and spiritual world are rooted in a deep knowledge and understanding of its elements. Oral traditions such as myths, legends, and proverbs tell about the gods and kosmos, which guide social structure and traditional chiefs’ councils, regulating the polity of Belau (Dobbin and Hezel, 2016). Rituals and chants honor the spiritual world. Palauans use plants in daily life for different purposes (Kitalong et al., 2006). The collection of plant modalities and interspecies phyto-communicative relationships continue to be foundational for conservation and governance in Belau. Belau recognizes traditional and constitutional governance honoring traditional knowledge systems and customary law guided by the Rebekul Belau (Council of Traditional Chiefs). The protected area network, established in 2003, allows traditional knowledge holders to continue their cultural practices. ‘Palauans believe it is important to use the resources to stay connected to them’ (Tellei P). The luaktak (village chief) continues to play an important role in natural resources management and can still assert a bul (harvest moratorium on resources when they become depleted or as a mortuary custom honoring a deceased chief). During interviews, the deep respect Palauans have for ukall or kumer (Serianthes kanehirae var. kanehirae) became evident, as the tree’s name, uses, and the people’s stories intertwine.

The gumor of Wa’ab and its people

Yapese traditionally hold a worldview focused on kan (gods and spirits) (Dobbin and Hezel, 2016) and rely on magic for protection against spirits. Rituals are performed to honor and appease spirits during traditional practices. Using plants for food, lumber, medicine, fiber, fishing, or other uses is central in the Yapese traditional nature-integrated system (Falanruw, 1994). This traditional management approach fosters phyto-communicative relationships. Governance and conservation integrate traditional and constitutional systems honoring traditional customs, guided by The Council of Pilung (traditional chiefs). Wa’ab also established a protected area network which uses the traditional management approach. All the land is privately owned, but the chiefs oversee the natural resources management. Traditionally, people would use gumor (Serianthes kanehirae var. yapensis) only for house posts, canoe building, and community men’s houses, but when the United States brought portable sawmills to Wa’ab, their use as timber increased. Fortunately, Wa’ab has a traditional system of taboo ensuring conservation of the species.

S. nelsonii: the spirit of the largest tree in the Mariana Islands

Despite the long colonial history of the Mariana Islands and the early introduction of Western conservation practices and governance, CHamorus maintain much of their cultural, political, and spiritual identity. The CHamoru worldview respects the taotaomo’na (ancestral spirits) and spirits of all living and nonliving things (Cunningham, 1992). The taotaomo’na can do good or bad. Because they dwell in the natural world, especially in the aerial and subterranean root system of the Nunu (Ficus prolixa), the sacred spiritual significance of the land connects the people’s ecological identity with their spiritual identity (Perez, 2015). The CHamorus are the ‘taotao tåno’ or the ‘people of the land’ and believe the land is their ancestor because she was created from the bodies of Putan and Fu’una, the CHamoru creation gods. Rituals and ceremonies typically start with honoring the ancestral spirits. ‘We believe there is ancestral activity everywhere and therefore start our ceremony by saying “Manotohge hit,” meaning “we stand” over all the old bones, which is a reminder that wherever you go, you are not the first one’ (Master of CHamoru chant, Iriarte L). Other rituals include blowing of the kulo’ (shell trumpet) to call upon the ancestral spirits to guide them, or ‘burning of flowers to honor the ancestors’ (Aguon Cruz E). People still ask permission when entering i hålom tåno’ (the forest). Even Catholic practices incorporate ancient CHamoru spiritual beliefs and practices (Owen, 2011; Schwab, 1996). Contemporary CHamoru values relate to the land, spiritual well-being, and connection to their ancestors. This interrelatedness with nature creates interspecies phyto-communicative relationships. An important CHamoru value emphasizing this interconnectedness with the natural world is inafa’maolek, stemming from the kinship between humans and the natural world (Cunningham, 1992; Perez, 2015). Although the island’s legal framework of conservation and governance is westernized, when S. nelsonii, the largest tree in the Mariana Islands, became endangered, the CHamoru people stood up to protect this species as it is an intrinsic part of their heritage.

Conclusion

The answer to the initial question, whether epistemological orientations based on Indigenous spirituality and phyto-communication can shape the protection and conservation efforts of endemic plant species such as Serianthes in Micronesia is clear. Our research shows that the spiritual practices, rituals, values, and phyto-communication surrounding Serianthes connect people to the tree and its habitat holistically. While the modern debate often focuses predominantly on singular aspects such as endangered species or loss of traditional skills, the most pressing and dangerous possibility would be a change in the Indigenous value systems connected to spirituality. These cultural structures are connected to spirituality, instill respect, conservation, and prosperity for future generations. By sustaining human-plant relationships, the people of Belau and Wa’ab continue to protect and connect with Serianthes in a sacred way. The role of traditional knowledge in conserving biodiversity is evident. In Belau and Wa’ab, people are able to continue their traditional practice guided by councils of traditional knowledge holders and other levels of social organization.

The Mariana Islands endured centuries of colonization. Although spirituality and traditional practice are still very important to the CHamoru people, foreign laws and regulations not fit for island cultures damaged the important link between traditional knowledge and conservation. In the Mariana Islands, the Serianthes populations diminished. In Guåhan, the ecological-spiritual identity of the CHamoru people and eco-spiritual practices fostered fierce resistance against the military firing range in Guåhan. Activists brought spirituality to the forefront of the discussions and demanded inclusion of this environmental consciousness into environmental compliance laws and regulations. A collaboration between traditional knowledge holders and scientists is necessary to generate a co-production of conservation knowledge and practice guided by spirituality and respect. In Luta, human-plant interactions are being restored by planting Serianthes in the village. Over time, patterns of mutual sensing between Serianthes and the people of Luta can be shared and adapted.

The deep spiritual connection traditional knowledge holders maintain while continuing traditional practice and rituals provides strong evidence of why conservation practices tied to plant-human relationships can increase biocultural diversity. A culture defines itself not only by materialistic expression or political debate, but also by the belief systems and values which guide behavior and provide a lived experience deeper and more persistent than a cultural practice. Oral traditions concerning spirituality encompass a wide variety of expression through both spoken words (legends, myths, songs, chants, and proverbs) and practices (rituals and ceremony) and are essential to safeguard a culture. While similarities exist across the region, every Micronesian culture has its distinct spirituality, which is part of the islanders’ heritage. This spirituality and an ethos of earth stewardship can form the basis of conservation in island cultures.