Imago Dei in Early Christian Anaphoras

Introduction ¹

The creation narrative in the first chapter of Genesis features the making of humanity in God's image—imago Dei. References to the Divine image given in creation are found and preserved in Christian liturgies to strengthen the presentation of Christian theology. Recent scholarship has highlighted general aspects of the imago Dei in Christian worship, ² or mystical understanding of its liturgical use. ³ However, there is still a need to explore the specific theological implications of the imago Dei language within the text of early Christian anaphoras of the first five centuries. The paper at hand will attempt to fill the scholarly gap by exploring the early anaphoras that use image language to depict theological concepts. This paper will show that the use of imago Dei language in such anaphoras has two main intentions: (1) to introduce the story of salvation, and (2) to provide descriptions of the imago Dei itself.

Imago Dei and Christian Salvation

The Oxford History of Christian Worship points out that “theologically, all Christian use of language is governed by the Incarnation of the Word, as Athanasius makes it clear in his treatise bearing that title, and also Augustine in De doctrina christiana. Theologically, Christian liturgy stands under that rubric, and in turn helps to keep believers aware of it.” ⁴ Hence, it will be shown that the early Christian anaphoras use the imago Dei language to introduce the economy of salvation and establish a clear need for the Incarnation of Christ. The salvation history introduced in such anaphoras typically begins with the creation of the human and culminates in the salvific incarnation of Christ.

One of the earliest Egyptian anaphoras, found in the Strasbourg papyrus (4th or 5th c. manuscript, with text c. 200 AD), ⁵ emphasizes the creation of humanity in God's image when praising God for the acts of creation.

To bless [you] … [night] and day … [you who made] heaven [and] all that is in [it, the earth and what is on earth,] seas and rivers and [all that is] in [them]; [you] who made man [according to your] own image and likeness. You made everything through your wisdom, the light [of?] your true Son, our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ; giving thanks through him to you with him and the Holy Spirit. ⁶

Serving as the preface to the Strasbourg papyrus, the text uses imago Dei language before presenting Christ and the Holy Spirit as co-creators. The passage introduces Trinitarian theology and hints at salvation through the title “Savior.” However, an extended salvation narrative cannot be found in the available text of the Strasbourg Papyrus, beyond the mentioned implication.

A more vivid illustration of salvation history beginning with the imago Dei is in the Apostolic Constitutions [ApCon]—an ancient church order compiled between 375 and 380 AD as a blend of material from other contemporary church orders. ⁷ Book VIII contains an expanded anaphora prayer set within a eucharistic rite. ⁸ Not only does this anaphora point to the imago Dei in creation, but it directly quotes Genesis 1:26,

And not only have you fashioned the world, but you have also made man in it, the citizen of the world, displaying him as the ornament of the world. For you said in your wisdom, “Let us make man in our image and likeness, and let him rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air.” … But when he neglected the commandment…[y]ou justly drove him out of the paradise, but in your goodness did not despise him when he was utterly perishing…

ApCon references creation at the beginning of the salvation history and continues recounting the narrative until the incarnation—the climax of the narrative. The imago Dei language introduces salvation history; shortly after establishing creation in God's image, the narrative mentions the disobedience to the commandment, along with the consequence, which establishes a clear need for the incarnation.

Unlike ApCon, ancient anaphoras do not typically quote the exact text of Genesis to reference the imago Dei. The Liturgy of St Mark [MARK]—an early Egyptian liturgy, originally in Greek, edited into Coptic sometime after 431 AD and became attributed to St Cyril of Alexandria ¹⁰ —has the imago Dei language at the beginning of the anaphora where the presider prays, “you who made humankind according to your own image and likeness, and granted them the pleasure of paradise.” ¹¹ This sentence is used as an introduction to the depiction of the divine economy. ¹² The sequence of events in the anaphora starts with the creation of humanity in the image of God, then after transgression, God does not abandon his human creation but sends prophets and gives the law as support. Finally, God renews His image in the human through the “mystery,” likely referring to the mystery of incarnation.

The Armenian anaphora of St Basil also recounts salvation history beginning with the imago Dei. There are two versions of this anaphora: Armenian Basil I [ArmBAS I], traditionally attributed to Gregory the Illuminator (c. 337 AD); and Armenian Basil II [ArmBAS II], traditionally attributed to Basil of Caesarea (300–379 AD). ¹³ ArmBAS II is longer and expresses clear imago Dei language in the post-Sanctus prayer,

Holy! Holy! Holy are you, indeed! Lord our God, and there is no measure of the holiness in your majesty. Because in righteousness and justice and truth you have given us all this, you who created man out of the dust of the earth, and honored him “as an image of God” and “placed him in the pleasure garden” for immortal life and for a good rest; and by obeying the commandments, you promised him additional glory. ¹⁴

As with previous anaphoras we have considered, the imago Dei language initiates the narrative of salvation. The sequence of events in ArmBAS II begins with the creation in God's image, then humanity's disregard of the commandment and its exile out of the garden. ArmBAS II depicts the incarnation as renewal, “but in the providence and grace of your Only-Begotten you have renewed your creature through rebirth.” ¹⁵ Patristic understanding of renewal included the renewal of the glorious image. As early as Origen of Alexandria (c. 184–253 AD), renewing of the glorious image is understood as the heart of renewing humanity. ¹⁶ In connection to the incarnation and salvific works of Christ, Athanasius of Alexandria (c. 296–373 AD) illustrates renewal in terms of a subject returning so that a damaged painting might be restored to match the likeness of said subject. ¹⁷

ArmBAS II mentions God visiting His creature in many forms—prophets, saints, eternal commandments, and angels—but it cites the incarnation as the culmination of the Divine economy,

However, when the completion of the times came, you spoke to us through your only begotten Son, through whom you created the world, who is the light of glory and the image of your essence, and preserves everything through his mighty word, who by no means considered it robbery to become equal to God, but as eternal God appeared on earth and walked among men, incarnated from the holy virgin, put on the form of a servant and became the likeness of our decrepit body, so that he might make us like fellow companions of his glory. ¹⁸

Here, the anaphora reveals the incarnation as a parallel of creation. In creation, the human was made in the image of God, and in the incarnation, God came in the form of a human, through Christ who is the image of the Father. The anaphora further illustrates this parallel imagery through using the language of Philippians ¹⁹ to describe the Divine coming in the “form” of a slave and the “likeness” of our human body.

As previously mentioned, in ArmBAS II a goal of the incarnation is renewal. The anaphora goes a step further to define the goal of renewal as glorification of humanity, “that he might make us like fellow companions of his glory.” This aspect of salvation, again, mimics creation. The anaphora mentions that in honoring the human with the divine image and immortal life at creation, God was preparing humanity for “additional glory.” In the incarnation, the anaphora describes the Son as “the light of glory and the image of your essence”; the use of a classic parallelism structure for these two descriptions further supports the link between glory and image. The glory language in the salvation narrative is not unique to this anaphora; it is also found in the Byzantine Liturgy of St Basil.

The Byzantine Liturgy of St Basil [ByzBAS] is also attributed, at least in part, to Basil of Caesarea. ²⁰ The inaudible post-Sanctus prayer begins with creation in the image of God, “For you took dust from the earth and formed man; you honored him with your image, O God.” ²¹ Then the anaphora, as seen previously, moves through the sequence of divine providence, culminating in the incarnation. Like its Armenian counterpart, ByzBAS has the parallel structure in the narration of the divine economy of salvation. The parallel structure—the human made in the image of God and God coming in the form of a human—is perhaps the clearest in this anaphora:

But he who was God before the ages was seen on earth and lived among men; he was made flesh from a holy virgin and humbled himself, taking the form of a slave; he was conformed to the body of our humiliation that he might conform us to the image of his glory. For since through man sin had entered into the world, and through sin death, your only-begotten Son, who is in your bosom, O God and Father, being born of a woman, the Holy Mother of God and ever-Virgin Mary, born under the law, was pleased to condemn sin in his flesh, that those who died in Adam should be made alive in him, your Christ. ²²

The previously mentioned parallel structure is also seen here through utilizing the imago Dei at the beginning of the salvation narrative and using image language when speaking of the incarnation at the climax. As with ArmBAS II, ByzBAS uses the phrase “form of a slave” from Philippians, but unlike the Armenian counterpart, ByzBAS uses “conform” instead of “likeness” in relating Christ's humanity to ours. ByzBAS uses “conform” in association with image and humanity to structurally highlight the purpose of incarnation—Christ conformed to our humanity to conform humanity to the image of His glory. This idea adds a third component to the previously seen parallel structure, which can be formulated as follows: God created humanity in His image, God came in our image (form), God conformed our image to His image. ²³ Thus, the parallel structure outlining the economy of salvation highlights the phrase “that he might conform us to the image of his glory.” Here the anaphora further strengthens the previously seen connection between glory and image.

The mention of imago Dei and the parallel structure surrounding the image is seen in the fifth century Jerusalem anaphora attributed to St James, the Brother of the Lord (c. 62 AD), but with more brevity than ByzBAS. The anaphora in the Liturgy of St James [JAS]—a Jerusalem liturgy with a core text combining eucharistic traditions from Antioch and Jerusalem c. 400 AD ²⁴ —exhibits a rich language surrounding the notion of imago Dei. It depicts the initial creation in the image of God and the renewing of said image through the incarnation of Christ:

You made humankind from the earth after your image and likeness, and granted them the enjoyment of paradise; and when they transgressed your commandment and fell, you did not despise or abandon them, for you are good, but you chastened them as a kindly father, you called them through the law, you taught them through the prophets.

JAS continues the pattern seen in previously discussed anaphoras, where the economy starts with the creation of humanity in God's image, culminating in the incarnation and renewal of said image. In discussing the renewal aspect, JAS specifically mentions the renewal of the image. This intentional language reflects the aforementioned patristic thought, and perhaps formulates the same message as “you have renewed your creature” from ArmBAS II, but with more direct language. Since JAS presents the image language with more brevity than the Basil anaphoras, JAS does not explicitly use the language of Philippians and also does not highlight the glory aspect mentioned in ArmBAS II and ByzBAS.

Overall, early Christian anaphoras use the imago Dei language to introduce the events of the divine economy, tie creation to salvation, and establish a need for the incarnation in renewing the Divine image. Parallelism is often seen between the language of Philippians and Genesis to further connect salvation and incarnation. Further, ArmBAS II and ByzBAS also connect image to glory, highlighting our partaking in God's glory when mentioning the purpose of the incarnation.

Image, Reason, and Immortality

Besides introducing salvation history, early Christian anaphoras also use the imago Dei language to highlight theological aspects of the imago Dei itself. This section discusses the first description of humanity's imago Dei in relation to the rational immortal soul.

A link between rationality and image comes from the book of Wisdom, which describes wisdom itself as the image of the goodness of God. ²⁶ Philo of Alexandria (25 BC–50 AD), a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher, also calls Logos (word; logic) the wisdom and image of God. ²⁷ When it comes to immortality, scriptural passages have alluded to the immortality of the human spirit. ²⁸ Philo also makes references to the immortality of righteous souls ²⁹ and hymns from Qumran mention God giving His chosen ones an “everlasting possession” with the Holy Ones in heaven. ³⁰ Perhaps the link between immortality and imago Dei is best seen in the Book of Wisdom, “for God created us for incorruption, and made us in the image of his own eternity.” ³¹

In the Christian tradition, there is overwhelming patristic support for the relation of the Divine image and the rational soul—or mind psyche. Clement of Alexandria (c. 150–215 AD) ties human rationality to the Word (Logos) of God, saying,

For “the image of God” is His Word, and the divine Word, the light who is the archetype of light, is a genuine son of Mind [the Father]; and an image of the Word is the true man, that is, the mind in man, who on this account is said to have been created “in the image” of God and “in His likeness,” because through his understanding heart he is made like the divine Word or Reason Logos, and so rational logikos. ³²

Similarly, Athanasius of Alexandria defines the imago Dei as reason (logic) in humanity, but he also ties this reason directly to the grace of immortality, saying,

Upon them, therefore, upon humans who, as animals, were essentially impermanent, He bestowed a grace which other creatures lacked — namely the impress of His own Image, a share in the reasonable being of the very Word Himself, so that, reflecting Him and themselves becoming reasonable and expressing the Mind of God even as He does, though in limited degree they might continue forever in the blessed and only true life of the saints in paradise. ³³

Both Clement and Athanasius see the soul as the rational component of humanity, and thus define it as the image of God, or in Clement's understanding “the image of the Word.” ³⁴ Athanasius clarifies further by describing rationality as an active participation in the being of the Logos. This participation in the Mind of God allows immortality, or in Athanasius’ words to “continue forever.”

Christian anaphoras build upon the Hellenistic Jewish understanding and the patristic tradition by integrating them with the imago Dei in the Christian narrative of salvation. ByzBAS relates imago Dei to the immortal life promised to humans, saying, “For you took dust from the earth and formed man; you honored him with your image, O God and set him in the paradise of pleasure, and promised him immortality of life and enjoyment of eternal good things in keeping your commandments.” ³⁵ ByzBAS links the image of God to the promise of immortality, but does not explain the image itself to be immortal.

ArmBAS II connects immortality to the Divine image in humanity. The anaphora asserts that at creation of the human, the Creator “honored him ‘as an image of God’ and ‘placed him in the pleasure garden’ for immortal life and for a good rest.” The connection between image and immortality is not expanded in this anaphora, but the anaphora highlights the Divine image and placement in the garden as a cause for immortality.

ApCon incorporates both the rational soul and the immortality in the Divine image reference,

For you said in your wisdom, “Let us make man in our image and likeness, and let him rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air.” So also, you made him from an immortal soul and a perishable body, the one from what is not, the other from the four elements. And you gave him in respect of the soul, logical reason, discernment between godliness and ungodliness, observance of right and wrong, and in respect of the body, the five senses, and the power of motion.

The anaphora highlights the human soul as the immortal and logical component that encompasses God's image. The anaphora aligns with the patristic tradition in highlighting the rational mind as the imago Dei and uses imagery of “seeds of the knowledge of God” to further illustrate such rationality.

Thus, one liturgical definition of the Divine image in humanity encompasses the soul or mind that is both immortal and rational. The main purpose of the imago Dei language is still to introduce the salvation narrative; however, defining the imago Dei is another use of the language that ties to the incarnation, which restores the soul to the ideal rational, immortal image.

Image and Authority

The link between image and authority goes as far back as ancient Near East kings and rulers who used to set up statues of themselves to assert their dominion in distant provinces. ³⁷ Hence, the image of a king was an extension of his authority. With this background comes the understanding of the human as the image of God that is set on earth to assert God's dominion and authority. The text of Genesis 1:26 shows this theme, since dominion is declared right after imago Dei creation.

In On the Human Condition, Basil of Caesarea sees the verse of Genesis as God giving dominion to the soul of the human, since the flesh is an instrument to the soul. ³⁸ He ties the Divine image with authority and defines authority itself as a natural cause of the rational mind given to humanity. This rational mind—the immortal soul—appears to constitute the Divine image. By emphasizing rationality in the imago Dei, Basil aligns with the understanding of Athanasius and Clement along with the early anaphoras mentioned. Yet, Basil expands further, “but [human] nature has the divine voice inscribed in it, ‘Let them rule.’ All these things belong to the human realm.” ³⁹ Generally, inscriptions are seen as authoritative and representative. A ruler's inscription on an object is seen as authoritative and an inscription on a statue helped identify the subject of the image. When inscription language is applied to humanity, the human becomes described as an image with an inscription, which is authoritative and representative of God's dominion. In a sense, the human becomes an ambassador of God's sovereignty on creation, and the Christian liturgy highlights this notion.

The link between dominion and the Divine image is found in the Liturgy of St Gregory the Theologian [GR]—a late fourth century liturgy ascribed to Gregory Nazianzus (329–390 AD) ⁴⁰ that is addressed completely to the Son. When it comes to the creation, GR takes a slightly different approach than other mentioned anaphoras. In this creation account, the presider reenacts the reaction of the first human as he thanks God for providing the creation for his own sake. Thus, the prayers contain many first and second-person pronouns in the statement on creation,

Because of the multitude of Your compassion, You have brought me into existence when I was not. You have raised heaven as a roof for me, and established the earth for me as a floor. For my sake, you have bound the sea. For my sake, You have revealed the nature of animals. You have subjected all things under my feet. You have not left me in need of any of the works of Your philanthropy. ⁴¹

After walking with the first humans to experience creation and thank God for it, GR continues with the narrative of the Divine economy and turns to the creation of humanity,

You formed me, and laid Your hand upon me. You inscribed upon me the image of Your authority. You have placed in me the gift of word. You opened for me Paradise to enjoy, and have given to me the learning of Your knowledge. You have revealed to me the tree of life, showed me secretly the wood, and made known to me the sting of death. ⁴²

Unlike the aforementioned anaphoras, GR does not describe the human as simply created in God's image, but rather prays, “You inscribed in me the image of Your authority.” Echoing the inscription language in Basil's On the Human Condition, GR directly connects image and inscription to authority. Inscription of authority emphasizes humanity’s elevated condition at creation, ultimately underlining the incarnation's importance in restoring this state.

Alongside the portrayal of authority as imago Dei, the use of image language still introduces the salvation narrative, whose culmination is seen in the incarnation. GR describes the incarnation as follows,

You, the Uncontained One, although God, did not hold being equal with God something to be grasped, but emptied Yourself and, taking the form of a servant, blessed my nature in Yourself…You made known to me the power of Your authority. You restored sight to the blind. You raised the dead from the graves. You set nature aright with a word. You made known to me the economy of Your compassion. ⁴³

Here, one sees the use of Philippians in describing the hypostatic union. The renewal seen in the Basil anaphoras is also here, but not explicitly stated; instead, it is shrouded in imagery such as “blessed my nature in Yourself,” “restored the sight to the blind,” and “raised the dead from the graves.” In the same way, the parallel structure can be detected; rather than being stated directly, it is shrouded in imagery. The parallel structure is formed by the creation phrase “You inscribed upon me the image of Your authority,” and the incarnational phrase “You made known to me the power of Your authority.” The use of authority with image at the beginning of the salvation narrative, is counterbalanced with “form of a servant” and “power of Your authority” in that the climax of the narrative reveals this parallel structure; God's creation of humanity in His image of authority is paralleled with God's incarnation in the image (form) of humanity, to show the power of said authority. The parallel structure is shrouded, but it is still present in GR.

Other anaphoras reference authority but do not capture the notion as well as GR. ApCon relates dominion to image as it quotes Genesis, but the inscription language is absent. Later, ApCon depicts another aspect of dominion that is not necessarily related to God's image but rather to the ability of man to provide for himself after the fall. ⁴⁴ Finally, this anaphora mentions authority in reference to human creation and immortality, but this authority is related to the freedom of eating from any tree of the garden—likely referring to the freewill of the first humans to obey the commandment of Genesis 2:17. ⁴⁵

Overall, the description of the imago Dei as authority is best seen in GR, and also found in ApCon to a certain extent. Thus, a second liturgical definition of the Divine image in humanity encompasses the dominion over creation. The use of the imago Dei language for the purpose of introducing the salvation narrative can still be detected alongside the definition, and a parallel structure using authority can be deduced from GR.

Conclusion

As depicted throughout this paper, early Christian anaphoras use the creation of humanity in the Divine image to show a theological emphasis. They appear to utilize image language to introduce the economy of salvation using parallel structure—the human made in the image of God in creation and God coming in human form in the incarnation. The restoration of the image through the incarnation and the sharing in the glory of God are theological motifs that are especially portrayed in ArmBAS II and ByzBAS.

In addition to Christian salvation, two descriptions of the imago Dei also emerge in early anaphoras. The first is centered around the soul, which represents the immortality and rationality of humanity as the depiction of the Divine image. This depiction is best seen in ByzBAS, ArmBAS II, and ApCon. The second description of the imago Dei—seen mainly in GR and briefly mentioned in ApCon—ties it to authority and complements Genesis 1:26, referencing the dominion over all creation. Both descriptions highlight man's original glorious state, emphasizing the importance of the incarnation's restoration of said state. The two liturgical depictions of the imago Dei incorporate the scriptural thought and align with the patristic tradition. The introduction of the economy of salvation, however, remains the most prominent use of such image language in the examined anaphoras. Overall, the richness of theological thought surrounding the imago Dei can be observed by exploring early Christian Anaphoras.