Abstract
As Cook and Cook (2012) point out, evidence-based practices “represent practices that meet a high bar of empirical validation, but they do not trump practical wisdom and common sense when making instructional decisions” (p. 78). As educators, we are tasked with making decisions based on a body of evidence and a sound data-based decision-making process (Rowe, 2020). Teachers analyze assessment data across students to determine common themes that can be addressed using classwide versus individualized instruction. Teachers examine data from assessments (e.g., curriculum-based measures, formal assessments, informal interviews with students’ general education teachers, writing samples, and other assessment data) and find many students struggle with essential skills not addressed in the general curriculum. In the absence of published curricula to teach specific skills, teachers are left to construct their own lesson plans. Oftentimes, teachers pull from multiple sources (e.g., worksheets, teacher-made materials, materials found on the Internet). A source teachers might not often consider is the research literature itself. A single research article can be the source of one lesson or multiple lessons. A well-written research article provides all the information needed to develop core components of a lesson plan (i.e., lesson objective, setting and materials, content taught, teaching procedures, evaluation).
Using research articles to generate lesson plans is not a new idea. Test et al. brought up this idea of using the research to teach skills not addressed in the general curriculum in TEACHING Exceptional Children in 2002. Specifically, Test and colleagues focused on using research to generate lesson plans for teaching self-determination skills. Much can be learned from the initial work of Test et al. The skill of reading published research for the key elements of a lesson plan can be applied across different contexts. Let’s revisit the steps to what was cleverly titled as a research-to-practice lesson plan by Test et al.
The first step in generating a research-to-practice lesson plan is to understand the body of research that defines the particular practice of interest by being a critical consumer of research (Rowe, 2019). Once you have identified a trustworthy source of evidence-based practices (Rowe, 2019; Test et al., 2015), you can begin to examine the individual studies that make up a particular practice. When writing research-to-practice lesson plans, it is important to use only experimental research articles. Experimental research articles are those that have used single-case or group designs. You want to avoid other types of research designs (e.g., qualitative, correlational). Although other types of research are important to the field, for the purpose of writing a research-to-practice lesson plan, they will not provide sufficient information to formulate all the components of a lesson plan. Most published research studies tell you exactly what type of research design was used in a study. Scan the article for headings such as Method, Experimental Design, or Research Design. Sometimes, this information can be found in the abstract of an article.
Next you want to think about all the major components of a lesson plan. You are trying to identify
the lesson objective,
setting and materials needed,
the content taught,
the procedures for teaching the content, and
how to evaluate student progress.
An experimental research article is going to provide only the core content of a lesson plan. Additional details will need to be added to support implementation in the classroom. For example, alignment with the Common Core or state-specific standards may be required, or additional information may be needed to address certain accommodations or modifications for some students.
Many experimental research studies follow a similar format. Technical writing is not like creative writing; there is a formula to writing these types of articles. This works to a teacher’s advantage, making it easier to spot the key information needed for a lesson plan. Let’s examine the five components of the lesson plan separately. To illustrate, we will examine a study colleagues and I published a few years back (Rowe et al., 2011). For background purposes, the Rowe et al. study is one of the studies that contributes to the evidence base for simulated instruction to teach basic finance skills to high school students with disabilities (National Technical Assistance Center on Transition [NTACT], 2019a. NTACT (2019b) defined simulation as “using materials and situations in the classroom that approximate the natural stimulus conditions and response topographies associated with the performance of functional skills in community settings” (p. 13).
Lesson Plan Component 1: Lesson Objective
The first component of a lesson plan is the lesson objective. The objective of the lesson is equivalent to the purpose of a research study. It typically can be found in the purpose statement located in the abstract or the last statement of the introductory paragraph. As seen in Figure 1, the last sentence in the last paragraph of the introduction of the Rowe et al. (2011) article was the lesson objective: “to teach students with disabilities to make a purchase with a debit card and track their expenses” (p. 108).
Purpose statement from Rowe et al. (2011, p. 108)
Lesson Plan Component 2: Setting and Materials
The next component of a lesson plan is the setting and materials. Setting and materials are important aspects of a lesson. They tell you where the skills should be taught and what is needed in order to carry out the lesson (e.g., paper, pencil, desk, manipulatives). When identifying setting and materials in a research article, scan the article for an appropriate heading. Some common headings used in research articles are Setting, Materials, Subjects (or Participants), and Procedures. There may be other headings, but this list will certainly be a good start. Once you have identified the appropriate heading, you would then read to determine what materials are needed in order to carry out the lesson. Figure 2 shows an example from Rowe et al. (2011). In this example, you can see instruction took place in the classroom with a designated banking center; however, student progress was also measured in community-based sites. There were a host of materials needed (e.g., paper, pencils, calculators, check registers) in addition to the materials needed to build the simulated debit card machine.
Settings and materials from Rowe et al. (2011, p. 109)
Lesson Plan Component 3: Content Taught
The content taught refers to the skills being taught (e.g., life skills, reading, writing). Content taught can be found under headings such as Instructional Content, Materials, Training Procedures, or Teaching Procedures. Make sure to always check the tables and figures. Sometimes authors include important information relevant to the skills being taught (e.g., task analysis) in a table or figure. Rowe et al. (2011) is a good example of this. They include the content being taught in a table on page 110 in the article (see Figure 3).
Content taught from Rowe et al. (2011, p. 110)
Lesson Plan Component 4: Teaching Procedures
Teaching procedures are the steps that a teacher takes in order to teach the skill to students, in other words, the steps for implementing a practice. Typically, teaching procedures are located under headings such as Procedures, Training Procedures, Instructional Procedures, or Training Sessions. In Rowe et al. (2011), the teaching procedures were included under a heading titled Procedures and includes both baseline and intervention procedures. Baseline procedures describe the steps to collect data to inform a student’s present level of functioning. For example, Rowe et al. described how well the student could perform the skill of using a debit card and tracking expenses before the intervention was implemented. Intervention procedures describe the steps the teacher implemented during instruction with the student. As seen in Figure 4, the teaching procedures followed a model-lead-test format. The research article provides step-by-step guidance on what a teacher should say and the expected student response.
Teaching procedures from Rowe et al. (2011, p. 110)
Lesson Plan Component 5: Evaluation
The last part of the research-to-practice lesson plan is the method of evaluation. This section refers to how responses were counted as correct or incorrect or how the teacher would know that a student acquired the skill or not. It is typically located under headings like Dependent Variable, Measures, or Data Collection Instruments. In some cases, you can extend teaching to generalize to natural settings, such as community. This type of information might also be found under the heading of Dependent Variable, or it could be in a section called Generalization. As seen in Figure 5, in the Rowe et al. (2011) example, the authors measured student progress using a 15-step task analysis, which they include in the article. This is excellent for teachers, as oftentimes coming up with the measure is half the battle! Many times, articles include the actual measure in the article so there is no need to re-create the wheel. Or sometimes, if the measure is not included in the article, it might be included on the journal’s website under Supplemental Materials. Most journals include the contact information for the corresponding author. It is also OK to contact the corresponding author with questions regarding the study (e.g., materials used, methods, or evaluation materials). It will surprise you how responsive researchers are!
Evaluation from Rowe et al. (2011, p. 109)
As you can see from the example presented here, all five major components (i.e., objective, setting and materials, content taught, teaching procedures, and evaluation) of a lesson plan can be identified in a research article, demonstrating that a research article is a valuable source of information for lesson planning. If you do elect to write a research-to-practice lesson plan, make sure to include the reference (see Figure 6). If you have questions in the future about the procedures, setting, materials, or other components of the intervention, you can always go back to the original source.
Sample lesson plan developed based on Rowe et al. (2011)
Remember, as you adapt practices to match contextual variables (e.g., student skill level, student demographics, schedules) and deliver responsive instructional experiences to your students, ensure your lesson retains the active ingredients for the intervention you are implementing. The active ingredients are the crucial components determined by the research to cause the improved student outcomes (Harn et al., 2013). This will allow you to make decisions regarding lesson impact. For example, if the practice was implemented as planned and the student outcomes were met, then the lesson may be contributing to intended outcomes.
Viewing research through the lens of lesson planning helps educators see the relevance of research to the classroom. As Cook and Cook (2016) noted, the research becomes much more relevant and actionable. And once the core components of a lesson plan have been derived from a particular study, then the lesson can be tailored to specific contexts to meet the needs of students.
