Abstract
Sunrise Middle School uses a schoolwide positive behavioral intervention and supports (SWPBIS) system that includes an existing token economy. The schoolwide expectations are “Be ready, Be responsible, Be respectful.” These expectations are defined in behavior matrices for each area of the school (e.g., hallway, bathroom, cafeteria) and for various routines within each classroom (e.g., transition between activities, whole-group instruction, group work). Students earn “Sun Dollars” in classroom and nonclassroom settings when they engage in behaviors that meet the expectations. Sun Dollar data, tracked by teachers and administrators, are used to enter students in a monthly raffle where they can win tickets to school events, gift cards to local businesses, and other rewards.
Nick is a seventh grader at Sunrise Middle School. At the beginning of the school year, he scored in the at-risk range on the schoolwide behavioral screener, and recently his math teacher, Ms. Parker, has noticed he has been struggling in her class. Nick often struggles to get to math on time, bring the appropriate materials, and remain in his seat during instruction. As such, he is often unable to complete his classwork on time, he regularly distracts other students, and his grades are dropping. In addition, he earns far fewer Sun Dollars than most other students in Ms. Parker’s class. Although these behaviors are included in the classroom behavior matrix outlining behavioral expectations, Nick is one of the only students consistently not meeting these specific expectations. Ms. Parker has become frustrated with Nick’s behavior because she knows it is preventing him from demonstrating his math abilities.
Behavior Contracts
Behavior contracts, also known as contingency contracts, have been used as a behavioral strategy for decades (Allen et al., 1993; Bowman-Perrott et al., 2015). Originating from the field of applied behavioral analysis, behavior contracts define behavioral expectations and specify contingent rewards for displaying target behaviors (Cooper et al., 2019). Behavior contracts are pragmatic (e.g., they can be applied across a variety of settings and tailored to any age or developmental ability), can be used to enhance many behaviors, are free, and do not require ample teacher time to create or implement. Moreover, students can be active participants in their creation, facilitating student agency and self-determination.
“behavioral contracting is a versatile and feasible strategy that can support students across a range of lowintensity and high-frequency challenging behaviors.
Historically, behavior contracts have been used successfully in classrooms, homes, and therapeutic settings. In a recent single-case meta-analysis, authors reported moderate effects of behavior contracts on improving behavior, on average, across the 58 participants in 18 studies (Bowman-Perrott et al., 2015). In classroom and home settings, behavior contracts have been used to address a wide range of behavioral skills. Academic areas successfully targeted using behavior contracts include division facts, word problems (Flood & Wilder, 2002), and spelling (Newstrom et al., 1999). Social behaviors successfully targeted using behavior contracts include on-task behavior (Allen et al., 1993), off-task behavior (Wilkinson, 2003), and homework completion (Miller & Kelley, 1994). Adding to their utility, behavior contracts can be used as a stand-alone intervention or in conjunction with other interventions (Simonsen & Myers, 2015). Other strategies that have complemented behavior contracts included goal setting, token economies, and group contingencies.
Identifying Students Who May Benefit From a Behavior Contract
Overall, behavioral contracting is a versatile and feasible strategy that can support students across a range of low-intensity and high-frequency challenging behaviors. Within SWPBIS (Sugai & Horner, 2002), behavior contracts align with the logic of a Tier 2, or targeted, intervention for at-risk students who may not be responsive to universal supports. However, it is important to note behavior contracts can be used by teachers in schools that do not have preexisting SWPBIS. Research has shown they can be applied to students with a disability (Flood & Wilder, 2002; Newstrom et al., 1999) or students at risk for a disability (e.g., Miller & Kelley, 1994) who are engaging in maladaptive behavior. Examples of maladaptive behaviors include off-task behavior, disruptive behavior, calling out, out-of-seat behavior, and noncompliance. Behavior contracts are not sufficient for students engaging in high-risk behavior (e.g., violence, aggression, sexual behavior, bringing weapons to school); students engaging in these behaviors should be provided with intensive, individualized, or wraparound services.
During a seventh-grade team meeting, Ms. Parker shares her concerns regarding Nick. A fellow seventh-grade teacher, Mr. Morris, asks Ms. Parker if she has ever considered developing a behavior contract with Nick. Ms. Parker asks what a behavior contract involves and whether it would work for “a kid like Nick.” Mr. Morris tells Ms. Parker about some of the research that he knows has been done on behavior contracts, and he pulls out some samples he has used with students in the past to provide Ms. Parker with an example. Ms. Parker likes that it is a fairly straightforward strategy that can be individualized for Nick’s specific behaviors, and that it will not take a lot of extra time during class. Ms. Parker decides she would like to try a behavior contract that would address Nick’s needs during math class.
Developing a Behavior Contract
Developing a behavior contract is simple and should be approached as a collaborative effort between the student and the teacher. In some cases, it may also be appropriate to consult with the student’s family; for the scope of this article, we are going to focus on the collaboration between the student and teacher. To develop the contract, first the teacher and student discuss the target behaviors. Then, they decide on a method for tracking progress, select a goal and rewards, and determine procedures for when the student does and does not meet their goal. Finally, they draft, review, and sign the contract (see Figure 1 for an example of a blank behavior contract). A more detailed description of each step of development follows.
Blank behavior contract
Select Target Behaviors
Once a teacher has identified a student for whom a behavior contract may be appropriate, the teacher lists all behaviors the student engages in that interfere with learning. The teacher should observe the student and then specifically note how the behavior looks, typical duration of problem behavior, when it is most likely to occur (e.g., time of day, specific class periods or activities), and the typical settings or activities in which it occurs (where and with whom). This can be done using a sticky note, spreadsheet, or scatterplot. If helpful, a teacher may recruit a paraprofessional or other teacher to briefly observe the student’s behavior to help describe the behavior objectively in as much detail as possible (i.e., develop an operational definition).
The teacher then meets with the student to discuss the behaviors the student may be engaging in that do not align with classwide behavioral expectations (e.g., sitting at desk with head down, calling out answers, having headphones in ears). At this stage, it is crucial to discuss how engaging in the maladaptive behaviors impedes success in the classroom. Using this information, the teacher and student discuss target behaviors that the student should be engaging in instead. These target behaviors are defined in positive terms (i.e., what the student should be doing) and are observable and measurable (i.e., something you can see and count). The target behaviors are specific to the student but also align with schoolwide or classwide expectations. In addition, although the number of target behaviors is individualized to each student, we recommend prioritizing a manageable number of target behaviors for the contract (e.g., no more than three).
“These target behaviors are defined in positive terms (i.e., what the student should be doing) and are observable and measurable (i.e., something you can see and count).
After the team meeting, Ms. Parker writes a list of all the behaviors Nick is engaging in that interfere with his learning: arriving to class late, not having the correct materials during class, and wandering around the classroom during direct instruction (usually looking for materials or talking to his friends). For the next week, Ms. Parker keeps a clipboard on her desk to note when the behaviors occur. Her data tell her that Nick is late every day, he forgets his materials 4 days, and he is usually out of his seat during the whole-group lesson part of class. The next week, Ms. Parker meets with Nick. First, she asks Nick if he can identify the school expectations. He correctly replies, “Be ready, be responsible, be respectful.” Then, she asks Nick if he can identify some things that might be happening during class that are preventing him from doing his best work. Nick replies, “Sometimes I miss the beginning of class or I bring the wrong book.” Ms. Parker acknowledges she also thinks those are challenges, and she also brings up that Nick spends several minutes during whole-group direct instruction wandering around the classroom instead of sitting at his desk. Nick agrees that he is not able to listen and learn when he is not in his seat. Because Nick and Ms. Parker agree on Nick’s challenging behaviors, Ms. Parker restates them in terms of what Nick should be doing instead. She writes on a piece of paper,
Bring all materials to class.
Arrive to class on time.
Stay seated during direct instruction.
Ms. Parker explains to Nick that these are the behaviors he should be doing instead of the ones they talked about earlier, and she reiterates how they are connected to the schoolwide expectations he already knows.
Select Goals
Once the teacher and student define the target behaviors, they set goals that are linked to rewards. First, the teacher and student choose a system for monitoring when the student engages in the target behaviors. The tracking system can be a grid or checklist at the bottom or on the back of the contract or a separate sheet of paper. The tracker is completed at the end of each class period to indicate if the student met each target behavior. When a behavior contract is first implemented, it can be helpful to have both the teacher and the student collecting data. This allows the teacher to compare the data at the end of class to see whether the student is accurately monitoring their own behavior or to talk about moments when the student was not engaging in expected behavior and how they can improve those situations in the future. If a student has difficulty with accurate data collection, it is appropriate to start by rewarding the student for matching the teacher’s data. The reward for accuracy can (and should) be faded once the student consistently self-monitors accurately using the correct methods.
Next, the teacher and student work together to create daily and weekly goals. A daily goal sets a criterion for the number of checks the student needs to earn to earn the reward (e.g., student displays two out of the three target behaviors). A weekly goal is a criterion for the number of days each week the student must meet their daily goal to earn a larger, weekly goal (e.g., student meets daily goal 4 out of 5 consecutive days). Though the student is consulted when choosing the goals, the teacher will ensure goals are attainable to set the student up for success. This may mean the goals start low and systematically increase over time.
Ms. Parker shows Nick a grid that will be printed on the back of his contract and used to track his progress (see Figure 2 for Nick’s data collection sheet). They decide that for the first 2 weeks, they will both track progress each day and check their ratings for agreement. Together they decide that a daily goal of two out of three checkmarks with agreement between their ratings is fair and that a goal of 3 consecutive days of meeting that daily goal will be the weekly goal.
Nick’s tracking sheet for math class
Set Rewards and Determine Opportunities for Reteaching
With the target behaviors and goals established, the teacher and student choose what will happen when a goal is and is not met. When a goal is met, the teacher will provide verbal praise, give behavioral feedback, and provide the student access to a reward. The reward may be a previously determined item or activity (e.g., tech time), or it may be a menu of options from which the student can choose. Teachers can use a preference assessment to determine the menu or ask the student what they would like to earn. The contract should also outline procedures for when the goal is not met. These consequences are not a punishment; instead, they include opportunities to reteach and review behavioral expectations. Examples include a mini-lesson of an expected behavior, an opportunity for the student to practice the skill with feedback, or increasing the number of precorrections provided throughout the day. The purpose of these consequences is to provide behavioral training and feedback in the target behaviors to expand the student’s behavioral repertoire.
Ms. Parker asks Nick what he would like to earn for meeting his goals and explains that daily rewards will be smaller than weekly rewards. After talking about some options, Nick decides that he wants 5 minutes of computer time for meeting his daily goal and a free homework pass for meeting his weekly goal. Ms. Parker agrees and writes those rewards into the contract. She also explains to him that if he does not meet his goals, they will have a follow-up conversation to review the expectations and to talk about how Nick could try to change his behavior the next day.
Draft, Review, and Sign Contract
Once the student and the teacher have agreed upon the target behaviors, goals, and consequences, the teacher drafts the information into a contract. The document includes (a) a list of the target behaviors; (b) student responsibilities; (c) teacher responsibilities; (d) parent responsibilities, if applicable; (e) the daily goal and weekly goal; (f) procedures for when the goal is and is not met; and (g) signature lines. When the contract is drafted, the teacher will meet with the student to review and sign the document. If a student will use the contract in multiple classes or at home, the teacher will have other teachers and parents sign the contract as well.
Last, Ms. Parker types the contract into one document and prints it out (see Figure 3). She rereads the contract with Nick, and he agrees it covers what they discussed. Ms. Parker and Nick sign the document and agree that the contract will start the next day.
Nick’s behavior contract
Implementing a Behavior Contract
Once a behavior contract has been developed for a student, it is important to implement it as designed. As with any intervention, implementation fidelity (i.e., adherence to procedures) is associated with positive student outcomes (Sanetti & Kratochwill, 2009). Teachers can follow these steps to implement behavior contracts with fidelity.
Step 1: Teach Target Behaviors
Prior to implementing the behavioral contract, it is important to be sure that the target behaviors are within the behavioral skill repertoire of the student. The teacher will set aside time for mini-lessons with the student. During the mini-lessons, the teacher will first explain examples and nonexamples of the target behaviors. Next, the teacher will explicitly teach the student how to engage in the expected behaviors. To do so, the teacher will model the behavior, allow the student an opportunity to practice the behavior, and provide feedback to the student as needed. The mini-lessons continue until the teacher is confident the student has the skills to independently engage in the target behavior.
Before starting the behavior contract, Ms. Parker and Nick practice the target behaviors. First, Ms. Parker and Nick discuss how he could be more prepared for class by remembering to bring his materials. Nick explains that he doesn’t typically stop by his locker before math because he doesn’t know how to get there from his previous class. Ms. Parker provides Nick with a map of the school and helps him map out a course from science class, to his locker, and then to math class. Then, she practices walking the route with Nick and getting his materials from his locker. Inside his locker, they place a sticky note with the materials needed for math. Next, they discuss why Nick is regularly late for class and determine that he is not keeping track of time while he walks the hallway. They time the new route and learn that if he didn’t stop to talk to friends, he could make it to his locker and to class on time. They again practice walking the route together, and Ms. Parker points out the clocks in each hallway so Nick can monitor the time himself. Ms. Parker lets Nick practice walking between classed until he can complete the trip within the time allotted between classes. With those two target behaviors learned, they move on to discuss Nick staying in his seat during direct instruction. Ms. Parker learns that Nick is not always aware of when instruction is occurring that requires him to be seated. As a result, he walks around the class to gather materials he thinks he needs and gets distracted by his friends in the process. Ms. Parker decides to explicitly teach Nick what direct instruction looks like in her classroom so that he will know when to remain seated. She models direct instruction and Nick is then able to practice staying seated while engaged in classwork. They practice the target behaviors until Nick is regularly able to complete them successfully and they can begin the behavior contract.
Step 2: Precorrect Behavior
At the start of each class period (or other period of time during which the contract is in effect), the teacher will hand the student a copy of the contract and verbally remind the student of the contingencies agreed upon in the behavior contract. To do this, the teacher will briefly precorrect the behaviors of interest by reminding the student of the appropriate target behaviors. This conversation focuses on what the student is expected to do to meet their goal rather than the problem behavior they are working to change. Next, the teacher will summarize the other elements of the behavior contract, including the student’s daily and weekly goals, how and when they will use the tracking sheet, and what reward the student will earn for meeting their goals.
At the start of each math class, Ms. Parker meets Nick at the door and hands him a copy of the contract with the tracking sheet on the back. She thanks him for arriving on time and reminds him what other behaviors he will work on in class and what his goal is.
Step 3: Track Progress and Provide Feedback
At the end of the class period (or other period of time during which the contract is in effect), the teacher meets with the student to complete the tracking sheet. The teacher (and student where appropriate) fills out the tracking sheet and provides feedback to the student on their behavior. Feedback includes both praise and corrective feedback, as appropriate based on the day’s progress toward the daily goal. The teacher will provide specific praise to the student for engaging in the target behaviors. The teacher provides corrective feedback for any behaviors that did not meet expectations. Corrective feedback is effective when it includes what specific behavior did not meet expectations and what more appropriate behavior could be used in a similar situation in the future. If the student also has a weekly goal, the teacher shares with the student their progress toward meeting that goal as well.
Nick leaves his seat twice during class, both times during independent work. He also brought the correct book to class but does not have a pencil or his calculator. About 7 minutes before the end of class, while the students are beginning their homework assignment, Ms. Parker walks over to Nick’s desk and reminds him to fill out the tracking sheet. After he completes his rating, Ms. Parker fills out her ratings. Nick and Ms. Parker both have checkmarks for arriving on time and staying in his seat during instruction. She praises him again for arriving on time. She also tells him that even though he got up two times, he remembered quickly that he should be in his seat and returned without a reminder. Nick has also placed a checkmark for having all materials and explains to Ms. Parker that he remembered his textbook that day. She also acknowledges that he has the correct book but also provides feedback that next time he should also make sure he has his other class materials. She asks Nick how he might remember all his materials, and he says he could double check the list he has in his locker. Ms. Parker tells Nick that is a good idea and that she could also make him a list to carry with him.
Step 4: Reward or Reteaching
If the student meets their daily goal, the teacher provides the student with the reward as outlined in the behavior contract. To fulfill the contingency, it is important that the teacher provides the reward immediately after the student meets their goal and only when the goal is met. At the end of the week, the teacher provides the student with their weekly reward if they met their weekly goal, as well. If the student has not met a daily or weekly goal, the teacher uses this opportunity to provide a mini-lesson to review or reteach target behaviors, allow the student to practice the target behaviors with feedback, and increase the precorrections given.
Two of Ms. Parker’s and Nick’s ratings match, so Nick met his daily goal. Nick earns 5 minutes of computer time and is allowed to use the classroom computer for the remainder of the class period.
Step 5: Maintain Intervention
The teacher continues this process for the duration of the behavior contract and until they see consistent and lasting improvements in the student’s behavior.
Contextual Variables Impacting Successful Implementation
The procedures outlined in this article provide a set of strategies to successfully develop and use behavior contracts in a classroom; however, there are also contextual variables to consider that may enhance the effectiveness of their use. To begin, behavior contracts rely on language (both verbal and written) and, therefore, may need alterations for students who have limited language repertoires. Examples of alterations include using social stories to teach target behaviors or using a picture-based system to define behaviors, goals, and procedures. Another variable to consider is the existence of any preexisting behavior management strategies in the classroom (e.g., token economy, positive behavioral supports). Behavior contracts do not replace existing services; rather, they are integrated into classroom management procedures currently in place. For example, if there is a classwide token economy in place, the student will continue to be a part of this system in addition to the contingencies outlined in the behavior contract. A final consideration to note is the notion that behavior contracts focus on a small set of positive classroom behaviors. Although it may be easy to solely focus on these, teachers can increase the likelihood of the student displaying positive behaviors by reinforcing all positive behaviors, not only those that are targeted in the contract.
“DBDM is an integral aspect of intervention implementation that allows teachers to regularly monitor student progress and make changes to the intervention accordingly.
Once Nick’s behavior contract goes into effect in Ms. Parker’s class, he continues to earn Sun Dollars and participate in schoolwide practices, like the monthly raffles. For example, on the 2nd day of his behavior contract, Ms. Parker notices that Nick offers to help another student who has dropped a folder full of papers on the floor. This action aligns with the schoolwide expectation of “be responsible,” so Ms. Parker praises Nick for being responsible by helping his classmate and provides him with a Sun Dollar.
Data-Based Decision Making
To monitor student progress during the implementation of a behavior contract, teachers engage in data-based decision making (DBDM). DBDM is an integral aspect of intervention implementation that allows teachers to regularly monitor student progress and make changes to the intervention accordingly (Majeika et al., 2020; Wehby & Kern, 2014). More specifically, DBDM involves graphing and evaluating student to determine if the intervention is (a) successful and should be faded, (b) successful and should continue, or (c) unsuccessful and an adaptation is required. This process ensures teachers adjust the intervention as needed based on student progress.
Graphing student data is an additional component that can be used to improve student outcomes by having the student and teacher visually analyze progress. As outlined earlier, behavioral contracting includes a system to measure how often student engages in target behaviors. We recommend graphing the daily data to help teachers determine if the behavior contract is working. Although the format of the graph may vary, it is important that the daily goal specified on the behavior contract is clearly represented on the graph so that everyone involved can clearly see if the student is achieving their target or not. Teachers can graph data on paper or through the use of a software program (e.g., Excel, PRISM). Researchers have recently developed electronic systems for monitoring behavior that may also be useful in the context of behavior contracting (Bruhn et al., 2016; Riden et al., 2019). When technology is available, these app-based programs can enhance the efficiency of data entry and evaluation.
The graphed data are reviewed regularly to make decisions related to continuing the intervention in the same format, adapting or intensifying the intervention, or fading the intervention. If the student’s data indicate the student is making adequate progress and regularly achieving their goal, the intervention can be continued in its current format. If the student is not regularly achieving the goal, the intervention can be adapted or intensified to better meet the student’s specific needs. Options to adapt the intervention include changing the reward options, reducing the goal required to obtain the reward, increasing the frequency of data collection (e.g., twice per class period), providing additional mini-lessons on target behaviors, or adding a mystery motivator. If the student is achieving their goals for an extended period of time, or even far surpassing their goals, the behavior contract can be faded by increasing the daily goal or decreasing the frequency of data collection.
At the end of the 1st week of the behavior contract, Ms. Parker meets with Nick to review his progress. Each day, Ms. Parker entered Nick’s points into a graph and she is able to show him that he met his goal for 4 days. Nick meets his weekly goal and earns his weekly reward of a no-homework pass that he can use the following week. Ms. Parker is happy with Nick’s progress, and Nick tells her that he feels like he learned more in math during the week. Ms. Parker tells Nick that because he had done such a good job of meeting his goals, the behavior contract would continue the same way the following week.
Ms. Parker plans to continue monitoring Nick’s data. If Nick does not meet his weekly goal for 2 consecutive weeks, she will work to intensify the intervention by adding a mystery motivator and incorporating mini-lessons at the start of each math class . If Nick is successful in meeting his weekly goal for 4 consecutive weeks, she will adjust Nick’s goals so he is required to engage in more behaviors more frequently to earn a reward. For example, he might need to meet all three behaviors to earn a daily goal and do so four times in a week to meet a weekly goal.
Tips to Facilitate Generalization
Behavior contracts have been used to improve outcomes across school settings, such as in general and special education classrooms, hallways, lunchrooms, and after-school programming (Bowman-Perrott et al., 2015). Although a behavior contract may first be developed to improve a target behavior in a specific setting, the student may also display the same behavior across settings and benefit from generalizing the intervention outside of the original location. This may be especially pertinent in middle and high school, where students change class periods throughout the day.
If the teacher and student who developed the behavior contract think the student could benefit from using it across settings, they will consult with teachers in other settings to determine if they observe the same behavior. If the decision is made to use a behavior contract in a new setting, expand its use one location at a time until the student consistently reaches their daily goal in each location. Additionally, the contract should be updated to ensure the definition of the target behavior is accurate for the new setting(s). This may include using setting specific examples and nonexamples of the targeted behavior. The student and teacher will also determine if the tracking system will be consistent across settings and what the goals will look like. Although consistency is important, the procedures need to fit into the context of each classroom. Last, the student and teachers will determine if the student will obtain their reward if they achieve their goal across all settings or if a reward will be provided separately in each setting.
After 1 month, Nick has met his weekly goal for 3 out of 4 weeks. At the next seventh-grade team meeting, Ms. Parker shares the data from Nick’s behavior contract with the other teachers to see if there is another class where Nick might benefit from a similar plan. Ms. Morales, the science teacher, indicates she is interested in trying the contract in her class to help increase Nick bringing his materials to class. She will consult with Ms. Parker and Nick to use the contract in her class as well moving forward. Overall, Ms. Parker and Nick are proud of his improvement. Ms. Parker even starts thinking about how she might use a behavior contract with a student in a different class who is also engaging in some challenging behaviors.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
