Development of adaptive pleated woven fabrics with shape memory alloys

Abstract

The growing demand for fiber-reinforced plastics for different high-tech lightweight applications requires their consistent and continuous development with a high functional density. The integration of actuator-like materials for developing adaptive reinforced fabrics can increase the market value of fiber-reinforced plastics. This paper reports on the development of adaptive pleated woven fabrics based on shape memory alloys using weaving technology. For the development of these fabrics, a systematic weave pattern was generated. Adaptive pleated woven fabrics were manufactured on a rapier weaving machine with a jacquard unit. By varying the pleat thickness, pleat width and the spacing between two pleats, eight types of adaptive pleated woven fabrics were developed, and their weaving-technical implementation for the subsequent infusion was evaluated. The flexural modulus of infused adaptive pleated woven fabrics was characterized by bending. Experimental results showed that the spacing between two pleats predominantly influences the flexural modulus of impregnated adaptive pleated woven fabrics.

Keywords

adaptive pleated woven fabrics shape memory alloys weaving bending testing

Liquid natural gas, renewable energies and fuel cells need to be further developed for use as resource-saving fuels, since the synthesis report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) demanded that fossil fuels must be phased out by 2100.¹ However, these resource-saving fuels are not yet widespread due to their net environmental cost, negative impact on biodiversity, safety as well as security implications and cost of support infrastructure.² A sustainable solution to this issue is the substitution of conventional materials by lightweight materials for the construction of different modes of transport. Fiber-reinforced plastics (FRPs) are a class of lightweight materials that are typically used for the construction of lightweight components.³

Regarding the end product, the reinforcing fabrics for the fabrication of FRPs are produced by weaving,⁴ warp or weft knitting⁵ or braiding⁶ technologies. Weaving is the most frequently used process for producing reinforcing fabrics due to the high production rate and the possibility of producing a wide range of fabric architectures.⁷ Woven fabrics are classified into two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) fabrics. Two-dimensional fabrics are very thin compared to their length and width. Thus, these fabrics are used for the fabrication of laminated FRPs for lightweight applications. However, interlaminar delamination occurs when laminated FRPs are subjected to high vibration applications or shear loads, which can be avoided by 3D woven fabrics due to their structural stability and integrity.⁸ In addition, due to their unique transverse properties, such as stiffness, strength, fracture toughness and damage resistance, as well as reduced peeling stress at joints, 3D woven fabrics are seen as a promising structural material for multi-directional load bearing and impact applications.⁷ Possible applications for 3D woven fabrics include H-shaped connectors on the Beech Starship, stiffeners for the air inlet duct panel of the Lockheed Martin Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) or rocket nose cones.⁸ Spacer fabrics, multi-layer woven fabrics, orthogonal fabrics, 3D polar woven fabrics and pleated woven fabrics are some examples of 3D woven fabrics for FRP applications.^3,9

In recent years, the textile-technical integration of sensors and actuators into reinforcing fabrics for the development of smart FRPs has been gaining popularity, for example, to detect damage in FRPs or for the formation of form-variable FRPs. There is very little literature on this matter though.^10,11 The embedding of a fibrous sensor in woven fabric laminate for structural health monitoring has also been reported.¹⁰ Mountasir et al.¹¹ showed the possibility of integrating the carbon roving into a woven reinforcing glass fabric structure for the purpose of electrical conductivity. The electrical properties of conductor yarns have been discussed accordingly by the authors.¹¹ In previous works carried out by the authors, the development of adaptive structures has been described.^12–16 Adaptive structures contain actuators that enable the controlled modification of system states and characteristics. Furthermore, their geometric configuration as well as physical properties can be varied purposefully.^17,18 In the structures developed by the authors, the shape memory alloys (SMAs) as an actuator are integrated into woven fabrics using the tailor fiber placement technology. SMAs are materials that return to their original geometric form during thermal-induced activation.

However, the integration by weaving of a stiff material such as SMA into flexible textile materials for the production of adaptive structures has not yet been reported. The function of SMA within adaptive structures is to change their geometric form during the thermal-induced activation of SMA.¹⁹ This work presents the development of adaptive pleated woven fabrics (APWFs) with SMAs. In order to generate such types of fabrics, a concept for the development of APWFs was developed as a first step. Next, the implementation of structures as well as the weaving-technical implementation of the developed fabrics was executed. The fabric was then infused. Finally, the infused APWFs were characterized in terms of their flexural modulus.

Conception for the development of adaptive pleated woven fabrics

Similar to pleated woven fabrics,²⁰ the proposed APWFs consisted of upper and lower fabric layers, whereby the pleat of fabrics was formed by retracting the floating warp yarns from the upper layer. In addition, the SMA was interlaced with the free ends of the pleats analogous to Figure 1 in order to form APWFs. The most important property of APWFs is reduced flexural stiffness so that during the subsequent electro-mechanical characterization of the adaptive FRPs made of APWFs, they can change their form to a greater extent.

Figure 1.

Proposed adaptive pleated woven fabrics with additionally interlaced shape memory alloy.

Variation possibilities

The structural variation of APWFs can be set by varying the pleat thickness (t_s), height (h_s) and spacing between two pleats (a_s). Eight variations of APWFs are listed in Table 1. The weft density of the weaving machine was adjusted in such a way that, in the case of simultaneous weaving of upper and lower fabrics, a weft density of 7 yarns per cm was maintained. With a weft density of 3.5 yarns per cm and fabric layer, the number of weft yarns per cm for the three regions around the pleats (S_1–3), in the lower fabric for the thickening of pleats (S_SUG) and in the upper fabric for the formation of pleats (S_SOG) was determined (cf. Table 1). The preliminary pull-out test had shown that the pull-out force of SMA was proportional to the number of interlacing points. Therefore, in this research, a maximum of seven interlacing points between SMA and weft yarns was chosen.

Table 1.

Experimental overview of adaptive pleated woven fabrics

Var. no.	h_s in mm	t_s in mm	a_s in mm	S₁ in yarns/cm	S₂ in yarns/cm	S₃ in yarns/cm	S_SUG in yarns/cm	S_SOG in yarns/cm
Var#1	15	0	100	70	70	70	0	11
Var#2	15	0	200	36	140	36	0	11
Var#3	10	10	100	70	70	70	4	11
Var#4	10	10	200	36	140	36	4	11
Var#5	20	0	100	70	70	70	0	15
Var#6	20	0	200	36	140	36	0	15
Var#7	15	10	100	70	70	70	4	15
Var#8	15	10	200	36	140	36	4	15

h_s: pleat height; t_s: pleat thickness; a_s: spacing between two pleats; S_1–3: number of weft yarns per cm for the three regions around the pleats; S_SUG: number of weft yarns per cm in the lower fabric for the thickening of pleats; S_SOG: number of weft yarns per cm in the upper fabric for the formation of pleats.

Example weave

Each variation of APWF was described by 11 interlacement areas. These consisted of the interlacement in the base fabric (S_1–3), the upper and lower woven fabric parts (SOG_1–2, SUG_1–2) and the transitions between the base fabric and pleats (Ü_1–4) (c.f. Figure 2). For variants with a lower pleat thickness, of 0 mm, the interlacing areas SUG_1–2 did not exist since weft yarns were only inserted into the upper fabric.

Figure 2.

Interlacing areas of adaptive pleated woven fabrics.

An example APWF of variation Var#3 is discussed here. In Figure 3, the interlacement in the pleated area is presented as a weft cross-section. The red and green numerals mark the position of respective warp yarns in the fabric.

Figure 3.

Interlacement, cross-sectional view of Var#3 in the area of the pleat. (Color online only.)

The number of weft yarns in regions S_1–3 of variant Var#3 was 70 each. The weft repeat was generated following the 64th weft insertion. In addition, another six weft yarns were inserted and the interlacement of the base fabric ended at the sixth weft in the pattern (see Figure 3). Thus, the fifth weft was the last one of the lower fabric and interlaced with the eighth warp of the upper fabric in addition to the fourth warp of the lower fabric (Ü₁). The 71st weft of the total interlacement was the first weft for the pleat in the upper fabric. Up to the 78th weft, the alteration between upper and lower fabric was retained. Since no more interlacements took place, a part of SUG₁ and SOG₁ was thus woven. From the 79th weft, only the upper fabric was produced, and the rest of SOG₁ was formed (see Figure 5).

Figure 4.

Rapport in double weave: (a) weft cross-section; and (b) pattern repeat.

The pleat ended with the 85th weft yarn and the fourth/eighth warp yarns in the upper shed. A comparison with the repeat S₁ (see Figure 4) showed that the 86th weft may coincide with either the firth weft or the fifth weft of the repetition. In this pattern, the first weft was offered as S_1, and thus Ü₃ = Ü₁, Ü₄ = Ü₂, SOG₁ = SOG₂, SUG₁ = SUG₂, after which S₂ began identically.

The pleat was formed from a total of 11 yarns of the upper fabric and four yarns of the lower fabric. The first tests revealed that the SMA did not always form symmetrically to the pleat. Thus, a few adjustments were made in SMA interlacement. The interlacing points were pushed forward to a point (79th weft) in Var#3. In Figure 5, warp yarn interlacements with the 57–87th wefts are shown in a pattern.

Figure 5.

Interlacement of Var#3. Red: lower fabric layer; green: upper fabric layer; yellow: shape memory alloy. (Color online only.)

Experiments

Materials

In order to demonstrate the possibility of developing APWFs, any type of high-performance fiber can be utilized. Within this research, aiming at the development of APWFs, a glass fiber (GF)/polypropylene (PP) hybrid yarn (Glasseiden GmbH Oschatz, Germany) was used. In order to customize the stiffness of the GF, this particular material combination was used to enable a greater deformation during the thermo-mechanical characterization of infused APWFs.²¹ The fineness of the hybrid yarn was at 600 tex (according to DIN EN ISO 1889) and the GF as well as the PP were mixed in a volume ratio of 7:3. E-Glas was chosen because this type of GF is most commonly used for FRP applications, and it offers a good price–performance ratio.³ A nickel–titanium-based SMA, Alloy H ox. sa. (Memry, Germany), with a diameter of 0.305 mm, was used for the development of APWFs. This type of SMA was used due to its maximum recovery length of 8%, maximum pseudo-elasticity of 8%, highest stability and high corrosion resistance compared with other SMAs, such as CuZnAl, CuAlNi, FeNiCoTi or FeMnSi.¹⁹ The tensile strength and elongation of break of the selected SMA were 1152.7 MPa and 11.1%, respectively. The surface of the employed SMA was oxidized (ox.) and straight annealed (sa). MGS® RIMR 135 and MGS® RIMH 137 (Hexion a. s., Sokolov, Czech Republic) in a mixing ratio of 10:3 were used as the matrix and hardener for the infusion of the adaptive preform. The density and the flexural, tensile, compressive and impact strength of the applied resin mixture were 1.18 g/cm³, 90 N/mm², 60 N/mm², 80 N/mm² and 70 KJ/m², respectively.²²

Machine

A rapier weaving machine (PTS 4/J, Lindauer Dornier, Lindau, Germany) with a jacquard unit (Unival 100, Stäubli AG, Germany) was used for the development of APWFs, in which case two warp systems for the upper and lower fabric layer were required. For this reason, in addition to the base warp yarns for the lower fabric of the warp beam, more warp yarns were fed into the machine for the upper fabric via a creel (see Figure 6). For sufficiently high warp tension, the warp yarns of individual spools were tensioned using a tensioning device. Each SMA was placed on the creel in separate spools and was subsequently fed into the shedding zone through a separate perforated plate.

Figure 6.

Schematic representation of the weaving process for the development of adaptive pleated woven fabrics. SMA: shape memory alloy.

For the systematic development of APWFs, the harnesses of the jacquard machine were arranged group-wise. Therefore, the first heddle of each harness series was used for the drafting of the SMA, and six warp yarns of the lower and upper fabric in alternation were drafted through the next six heddles. The SMA was then drawn every six yarns (Y). Since the heddle fineness was 8.2 yarns (Y) per cm, the distance between two SMAs was 7.32 mm. Based on preliminary trials, the tension applied to warp yarns and SMAs were 4.5 and 1.2 N, respectively. The tension on the SMA was controlled by a yarn tensioning device. The drafting plan of warp yarns for the development of APWFs is demonstrated in Figure 7.

Figure 7.

Drafting plan for the development of adaptive pleated woven fabrics in a pattern. SMA: shape memory alloy.

The pattern was repeated three times in the width direction so that three identical patterns were woven simultaneously. The SMAs were integrated into the reinforcing fabric by means of interlacement with the weft yarns in the pleat position, as shown in Figure 8. To ensure automation and reproducibility, SMAs were incorporated in the pleats by weaving technology.

Figure 8.

Adaptive pleated woven fabrics with detailed view of interlacement of shape memory alloy with weft yarns in the pleat position.

All APWFs were produced on the plain weave pattern basis because the plain woven fabric is very slip-resistant and possesses better handling properties for subsequent processing stages after weaving.

Weft insertion sequence

A single weft was inserted into the shed during a weaving cycle. Thus, the double layer fabric was produced by inserting the weft into the upper and lower shed in alternation. If the weft yarn was inserted into the lower shed to form the lower fabric, all warp yarns of the upper fabric were lifted upward to generate separate fabric layers. The weft yarn insertions were selected in a manner that does not continuously alternate between the upper and lower shed (see Figure 9). This reduced the alternating between lifting and lowering for both upper and lower warp yarns, which was therefore necessary for gentle processing of warp yarns.

Figure 9.

Weft insertion sequence: (a) alternating, higher yarn tension; and (b) gentle yarn processing. Green and red colors represent weft yarns for the upper and lower fabric layers, respectively. (Color online only.)

Weft density

Similar to the warp yarn density of 7 yarns per cm, the weft yarn density of APWFs was 7 yarns per cm (3.5 per fabric layer), which led to the upper and lower fabric layers superimposing without bulging. In previous weaving trials, this weft yarn density had proven to be appropriate. The high weft density resulted in bulging in the upper fabric, as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10.

Bulges in the upper fabric caused by a weft density of 9 yarns per cm.

Interlacement of upper and lower fabrics

Upper and lower fabrics are superimposed on each other, and thus no pleat is formed. The layers are connected by the interlacement of upper warp yarns with the lower fabric. A high number of interlacements leads to high undulation of the warp yarns, subsequently resulting in drapeable APWFs. The pattern for the interlacement of upper and lower fabrics is shown in Figure 5.

Formation of the pleat

The weaving-technical implementation of the pleat began by separating the upper and lower fabric layers, so the interlacements of the upper warp yarns were exposed in the lower shed. In addition, the interlacement was modified to ensure that only the lower warp yarns float. In the upper fabric, warp yarns continuously interlaced with weft yarns that were up to twice the length of the desired pleat height. The pleat formation was completed as soon as the upper warp yarns interlaced in the lower shed and warp and weft yarns once again started interlacing in the lower fabric (see Figure 11, left-hand side). After manufacturing the pleat through weaving, it had to be retracted into the fabric. This was done manually on the loom by inserting a metal rod into the pleat and lifting it according to the pleat height, since a special take-up unit for pleat weaving is lacking in the existing machine set-up.

Figure 11.

Formation of the pleat during the adaptive pleated woven fabric manufacturing process. Left: woven pleat; center: woven pleat, warp floats are retracted; right: finished pleat on the loom.

For the formation of the pleat, four additional weft yarns were inserted (two each into the upper fabric and lower fabrics) after pleat weaving, so the pleat was fixed and did not appear again in further manufacturing processes (see Figure 11, labeled 1). Next, the beating action took place, and the fabric was taken up. The upper fabric began to set up in the pleat region, and the pleat was formed completely by the subsequent retracting of floating lower warp yarns (see Figure 11).

Evaluation of weaving-technical implementation

For the subsequent process stages, such as infusion, the determination of the core height was necessary, which was inserted between the SMA and the base structure, so that the SMA was planar to the core and did not incline toward the core in the upward direction, as shown in Figure 12. This was executed by evaluating the pleat height (h_s) and the SMA height (D_h). Since the weft density (S_D) (3.5 yarn/cm) is not an integer and the SMAs did not proceed entirely symmetrically in each pattern, differences in pleat height (h_s) and SMA height (D_h) were expected. In addition, the interlacement of the SMA (A_SSOG) over seven weft yarns (four weft lifting and three weft lowering) required a length of at least 1 cm. This increase in height was absent in APWFs without a core.

Figure 12.

Inserted cores (brown): (a) the transition of the shape memory alloy (SMA) from pleat to core is planar; and (b) the SMA inclines toward the core in the upward direction. (Color online only.)

Furthermore, it can be concluded that the lower SMA diameter compared to that of GF/PP hybrid yarn resulted in a displacement of SMA height. The interlacement of the SMA with weft yarns in the pleat region is shown in Figure 13. In Figure 13(a), the SMA diameter was assumed to be the same as the yarn diameter. Next, the SMA height (D_h) was calculated using weft density and weft distribution in the pleat according to Equation (1). The actual SMA diameter (D_d) was 0.305 mm, which is very small compared to the diameter of the yarn. Thus, D_h increased to offset D_c_orr.

Figure 13.

Shape memory alloy (SMA) height D_h at the pleat without a core: (a) SMA diameter = yarn diameter; and (b) actual SMA diameter.

Figure 14.

(a) Shape memory alloy (SMA) interlacement is shorter than pleat thickness. (b) SMA interlacement is longer than pleat thickness, reducing SMA height.

These two cases can be differentiated depending on the number of SMA interlacing points and the pleat thickness. This was taken into account for the equation in terms of the factor w.

D_{h 1} = 10 \frac{S_{SOG} - (S_{SUG} + (w \cdot (A_{S_{SOG}} - S_{SUG})))}{2 \cdot S_{D}}

(1)

D_{h 2} = 10 \frac{S_{SOG} - (S_{SUG} + (w \cdot (A_{S_{SOG}} - S_{SUG})))}{2 \cdot S_{D}} + D_{corr}

(2)

with

D_{corr} = \frac{10}{S_{D}} - D_{d}

(3)

where

D_{h 1}

is the SMA height, if SMA diameter = yarn diameter [mm] (c.f. Figure 14 (a)),

D_{h 2}

is the SMA height, if SMA diameter < yarn diameter [mm] (c.f. Figure 14 (b)),

S_{SOG}

is the number of weft yarns per cm in the upper fabric for the formation of pleats,

S_{SUG}

is the number of weft yarns per cm in the lower fabric for the thickening of pleats,

A_{S_{SOG}}

is the number of weft yarns per cm in upper fabric, which are used for the interlacement of SMA in the pleat region, w is a factor considering SMA height as a function of pleat thickness,

w = 1

when

A_{S_{SOG}} \geq S_{SUG}

and when

A_{S_{SOG}} < S_{SUG}

, S_D is the weft density of the upper fabric in the pleat [1/cm],

D_{corr}

is the correction factor for SMA diameter < yarn diameter and D_d is the diameter of the SMA [mm].

The result of each variant is listed in Table 2. By using D_h₂, the approximate SMA height was determined by calculation. The height of the cores for the pleats was almost the same as the proposed pleat height (h_s). The calculated pleat height was more accurate in the case of the highest pleat height of 20 mm. This is due to the shifting of the fabric structure. The greater the number of weft yarns, the greater the fabric stretching due to frequently occurring undulation of warp yarns. The spacing between two pleats a_s was reduced by 5% in all variants. The final spacing between two pleats is a_s_real.

Table 2.

Analysis of weaving-technical implementation (for all variants w = 1)

Var. mo.	h_s in mm	a_s in mm	t_s in mm	$A_{S_{SOG}}$ in yarns/cm	$S_{SUG}$ in yarns/cm	$S_{SOG}$ in yarns/cm	$D_{h 1}$ in mm	$D_{h 2}$ in mm	$a_{sreal}$ in mm
Var#1	15	100	0	7	0	11	6	8	95
Var#2	15	200	0	7	0	11	6	8	190
Var#3	10	100	10	7	4	11	6	8	95
Var#4	10	200	10	7	4	11	6	8	190
Var#5	20	100	0	7	0	15	11	14	95
Var#6	20	200	0	7	0	15	11	14	190
Var#7	15	100	10	7	4	15	11	14	95
Var#8	15	200	10	7	4	15	11	14	190

h_s: pleat height; a_s: spacing between two pleats; t_s: pleat thickness; A_{S_SOG}: number of weft yarns per cm in upper fabric; S_SUG: number of weft yarns per cm in the lower fabric for the thickening of pleats; S_SOG: number of weft yarns per cm in the upper fabric for the formation of pleats; D_h₁: shape memory alloy (SMA) height, if SMA diameter = yarn diameter; D_h₂: SMA height, if SMA diameter < yarn diameter; a_sreal: final spacing between two pleats.

Since the difference was the same for all variants, further comparable values are given in Table 2. In Table 2, the actual values for the spacing between two pleats as well as the real and calculated SMA heights are listed.

Depending on the variation, actual SMA heights differed from the calculated pleat heights for the reasons mentioned previously. Instead of pleat height, SMA height was considered in order to choose the height of the core for the infusion of APWFs.

Infusion

The vacuum assisted resin infusion (VARI) process was applied to infuse the APWFs because of process simplicity and cost effectiveness. Before the infusion, a core of Rohacell-foam was inserted between the pleats. SMAs were firmly fixed with tape on the inserted cores in order to keep them in a stretched state. After infusion and annealing, the infused APWFs were tailored to a size of 300 x 30 mm² by means of a laboratory wet saw. An example of an infused APWF is shown in Figure 15.

Figure 15.

An infused adaptive pleated woven fabric. APWF: adaptive pleated woven fabric; SMA: shape memory alloy.

Characterization

The effect of pleat height, pleat thickness and the spacing between two pleats on the flexural modulus of infused APWFs was tested by a four-point bending method according to DIN EN ISO 14125:1998. This bending characterization is typically used to predict the deformation behavior of infused APWFs during the thermal-induced activation of SMA. The bending testing of infused APWFs was performed on the testing device Z100 (Zwick GmbH & Co. KG, Germany), which is equipped with an optical sensor to measure the strain on the sample. Infused APWFs were placed on the support span of the testing device and the load was applied on the SMA (see Figure 16). This test was carried out at a test speed, preload, temperature and relative humidity (RH) of 2 mm/min, 3 N, 23℃ and 50% RH, respectively.

Figure 16.

Four-point bending testing of infused adaptive pleated woven fabrics (APWFs). SMA: shape memory alloy.

Results and discussion

The flexural modulus of infused APWFs varied by SMA height, pleat thickness and the spacing between two pleats are shown by a bar diagram in Figure 17.

Figure 17.

Bending characterization of infused adaptive pleated woven fabrics.

Based on Figure 17, it can be concluded that the spacing between two pleats has a significant effect on the flexural modulus of infused APWFs. By increasing the spacing between two pleats, the flexural modulus of infused APWFs increased. For example, in the case of Var#5 and Var#6 the spacing between two pleats was increased from 95 to 190 mm, and thus the flexural modulus of infused APWFs increased from 4.65 to 8.67 GPa, respectively. The flexural modulus of infused APWFs of 8 mm (Var#1–4) was higher than that of samples of 14 mm (Var#5–8). This result indicates that the flexural modulus of infused APWFs behaved inversely proportional to the actual pleat height. This phenomenon can be explained by the equation of flexural modulus. The flexural modulus of a sample is proportional to the length and inversely proportional to the thickness. However, in the case of variable pleat thickness, the flexural modulus is inversely proportional.

Conclusion

The aim of this research project was the development of APWFs. It succeeded in developing APWFs based on SMAs on a rapier weaving machine with a jacquard unit. A total of eight types of APWFs were generated based on pleat thickness, pleat height and the spacing between two pleats. The bending behavior of infused APWFs was characterized, and the spacing between two pleats, SMA height and pleat thickness were found to be the influential factors for the bending behavior of infused APWFs. The flexural modulus of adaptive pleated FRPs was negatively correlated with SMA height and pleat thickness, but positively with the distance between two pleats. These relationships resulted from the modification of the geometric variables of infused APWFs. The findings of this research project form the basis for the promising implementation of adaptive pleated FRPs and their electro-mechanical characterization during the thermal-induced activation of SMA are described by Ashir et al.^21,23 The further development of APWFs can be executed by means of weaving with a shuttle or inserting doubled wefts on needle looms (to minimize fiber wastage and production costs). The use of coarser count yarns reduces the mechanical properties of the FRP, which are particularly important for large deformations of adaptive FRPs. Moreover, automatically retracting the warps for the pleat formation and a linear take-up unit to retain the shape of the pleat can facilitate this process in the future. The developed fabrics in the form of infused APWFs can be used for lifting operations and for the gripping and tensioning of ropes or as adaptive morphing wings.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the IGF research projects 18808 BR and 19832 BR of the “Forschungsvereinigung Forschungskuratorium Textil e. V.” through the AiF within the program for supporting the “Industrielle Gemeinschaftsforschung (IGF)” from the Federal Ministry for Economics and Energy (BMWi) by a resolution of the German Bundestag.

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