Water transport on interlaced yarns

Abstract

In this study, water transport on different interlacing conditions of yarns was investigated in order to simulate the effect of yarn crimp on water migration in woven fabrics. An apparatus was designed to simulate the interlacing condition of one set of yarns, and the water transport distance versus time can be obtained. With the apparatus, the effect of twist on the water transport of interlaced cotton yarns was explored. The results showed that for higher twisted yarns, the water transport distance was shorter than that for lower twisted ones. For higher twisted yarns, in spite of the same outward appearance, the actual water transport route was longer. Moreover, with the apparatus, the interlacing angle can be changed from 0^o to 180^o at 20^o intervals, and the effect of the interlacing angle was explored, which can be applied to simulate yarn crimp in woven fabric. The water transport at interlacing angles of 40^o, 80^o, 120^o, and 160^o was discussed, and we found that the interlacing angle decreased the water transport distance in weft yarns because of the decreased contact distance. It can be concluded that the twist and interlacing angle had an important effect on water transport in interlaced yarns. This study is a basic study for research on the mechanism of water transport, and it shows understanding of the relationship between the fabric structure and its physical property. It can be applied not only for woven fabrics, but also for knitted fabrics, braids, and some other fiber assemblies.

Keywords

cotton yarn water transport interlaced yarns twist interlacing angle

Water transport in fabrics, which is based on the phenomena of wetting and wicking, is a critical factor that affects the thermophysiological comfort of apparel, the dyeing and finishing process of fabrics, and the filtration property of textiles for medical and industrial uses. When fibers contact water, water molecules should firstly wet the fiber surface, then water will be transported through interfiber pores into the amorphous regions.¹ Because wicking takes place only in wet fabrics or when fabrics come into contact with water, wetting is a prerequisite of wicking.²

There are many studies on water transport in textiles, including the measurement methods,^2–7 the factors of fibers, yarns, or fabrics that affect water transport,^1,4,8–12 and so on.¹³ For the research on measurement methods, numerous tests are currently available. These test methods can be classified by the technique used, including observation, gravimetric, electrical, temperature/humidity/pressure-based methods, and so on. Zhu and Takatera² developed a new measurement method for in-plane capillary water flow within fabrics by a thermocouple technique. Tang et al.¹⁴ proposed an accurate and reliable measurement tester based on gravimetric analysis and image analysis for characterizing the transplanar and in-plane wicking property of fabrics. Berthier et al.¹³ discussed the flow pattern inside the bundle depending on the internal structure of the bundle in detail. They demonstrated that a limited number of fibers were sufficient for thread-based capillary flows, and that caging of the flow can be achieved by realizing a lyophobic envelope. Besides the research on measurement, there are also some studies on the relationship between fibers, yarns, and fabrics for water transport.^1,9,15–25 Nyoni and Brook²⁶ studied the wicking mechanism in filament yarns and they found that the heterogeneity of the pore size, shape, and orientation affected the penetration of the liquid into the yarn structure. Chen et al.²⁷ discussed the wicking kinetics of liquid droplets into yarns using a computerized imaging system, and the results showed that for wetting liquids, the time of droplet absorption was a linear function of the initial droplet volume squared. Neckář and Ibrahim²⁸ theoretically described the effect of pores between fibers on wetting and wicking. Chatterjee and Singh²⁴ studied the vertical wicking properties of polyester fabric based on a change in sample direction and change in tension.

In all these studies, researchers have focused mainly on the relationship between yarns and fabrics, or on the effect of structure on water transport in fabrics. As described previously,⁹ fabrics can be seen as a network that is constructed by yarns. Water transport in fabric occurs on yarns, both interlaced and non-interlaced. For non-interlaced yarn, the water transport property is determined by the yarn properties, such as fiber type, yarn fineness, twist, and so on. However, for interlaced yarns, the water transport was influenced by not only the own property of the yarn, but also by the weave/knit/braid parameters, such as weave density, fabric weave type, and so on. Based on the previous studies, in order to explore the mechanism of water transport in fabric in detail, it is necessary to focus on the network constructed by the yarns and to investigate the effect of the interlacing condition of warp and weft yarns on water transport. As there is little study on this, in this study, we explored the water transport of interlaced yarns, particularly to study the effect of twist and the interlacing angle of yarns on water transport, so that the effect of woven parameters, such as weave density, can be seen clearly. In order to achieve this purpose, an apparatus was designed to investigate the water transport of interlaced yarns. The apparatus simulated the interweave conditions on woven fabrics. With the apparatus, the effect of twist factors and interlacing angles on water transport in cotton spun yarns was investigated and discussed.

Experimental details

Design and configuration of the experimental apparatus

Woven fabrics are produced by interlacing two sets of yarns (warp yarn and weft yarn) perpendicularly to each other.²⁹ Based on the plain woven geometry proposed by Pierce,³⁰ Figure 1 shows the structure model of woven fabric, where the warp yarn and weft yarn are interlaced. The warp yarn is wrapped by the weft yarn, with the angle α defined as the interlacing angle.

Figure 1.

The structure model of woven fabric.

Figure 2 illustrates a schematic diagram and real object of the water transport tester for the interlacing yarns. In order to simulate the interlacing condition of yarns in woven fabric, the apparatus contains two interlaced yarns. One is in the vertical direction, defined as the warp yarn, and the other is in the horizontal direction, defined as the weft yarn. The warp yarn is dipped in a water tank filled with de-ionized water, and the weft yarn is set to be interlaced with the warp yarn, with their contact point named the interlacing point. The interlacing angle in the apparatus can be found from the bending angle of the weft yarn wrapping the warp yarn (α in Figures 1 and 2). It can be changed from 0^o to 180^o, at 20^o intervals. Tension F₁ (Figure 2) on the warp yarn is to set as the initial tension based on JIS L 1095.³¹ Tension F₂ (Figure 2) on the weft yarn is set to keep the weft yarn wrapped around the warp yarn and keep the warp yarn in the perpendicular direction. It is obtained according to the interlacing angle, based on our preliminary experiment.

Figure 2.

Diagram of the designed apparatus: (a) schematic diagram and (b) real object.

In the experiment, when the warp yarn underwent wetting and wicking, water transported along the warp yarn until it reached the interlacing point. After that it branched into the warp and weft directions. In this experiment, the distance between the water surface and the interlacing point was fixed at 20 mm. It can be controlled by adjusting the positions of hooks set on the supports for the weft yarns, as shown in Figure 2(b). The transport distance measurement was started when water reached the interlacing point. The distance water traveled along the yarn was measured using Vernier calipers based on the Byreck method.³² The measurement was taken every 1 minute and for 10 minutes. The effect of evaporation was neglected.

Sample preparation

Cotton yarns were spun by slivers on a ring spinning frame. Herein, as theoretical values, the yarn count was fixed to be 20 N_e, and four cotton samples, A, B, C, and D, were spun with different twist factors, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, and 6.0, which were set in the spinning frame. Based on the fixed yarn count and twist factor, the turns per inch (TPI) in theory can be obtained from Equation (1), with the results shown as the setting value in Table 1

TPI = twist factor \times \sqrt{N_{e}}

(1)

where N_e is the yarn count. TPI means the number of turns in 1 inch of yarn.

Table 1.

Specifications of yarn samples

Yarn samples	Setting value			Calculated value
Yarn samples	Yarn count ( $N_{e}$ )	TPI	Twist factor	Yarn count ( $N_{e}$ )	TPI	Twist factor
A	20.0	13.4	3.0	19.9	13.2	2.9
B	20.0	17.9	4.0	19.9	17.3	3.9
C	20.0	22.4	5.0	19.7	21.9	4.9
D	20.0	26.8	6.0	20.0	26.2	5.8

TPI: turns per inch.

For the spun cotton yarns, the yarn count and TPI were measured and their twist factors were obtained. The results were shown as calculated valued in Table 1. The calculated value shows high agreement with the setting value, which is to say that the spun cotton yarns can be used as the setting specifications.

Effect of twist on water transport

In order to investigate the effect of twist on water transport during the interlacing condition, the prepared cotton yarns (A, B, C, and D) were employed after pretreatment^2,9 to remove the adhesives and impurities on the yarns that were used in the spinning process. Before testing, cotton yarns were balanced at 20 ± 2℃, 65 ± 5% relative humidity (RH) for 24 hours and the tests were conducted at the above standard conditions. In one experiment, both warp and weft yarns were assessed using the same sample. The interlacing angle was set to be 120^o, and the distance of water transport for each cotton yarn was measured, both in the warp and weft directions. For comparison, the water transport of yarns without interlacing was also measured. Five measurements were taken and averaged.

Effect of interlacing angle on water transport

The interlacing angle is a parameter that can be used to reflect the condition of yarn configuration and crimp in woven fabric. The interlacing angle is influenced by the weave density. We explored here the effect of the interlacing angle on water transport. The investigation was carried out using the designed apparatus. In this experiment sample A was used and the interlacing angle was set to be 40^o, 80^o, 120^o, and 160^o, respectively. The water transport distance was measured. Five measurements for each angle were taken and averaged.

Results and discussion

Investigating the effect of TPI

Four different cotton spun yarns with different TPI were used to investigate the influence of twist on water transport between yarns. In this study, water transport in a single yarn without interlacing was marked as S. During interlacing of yarns, the yarn set in the warp direction and dipped in water was marked as WP, and the yarn in the weft direction was marked as WT.

The total water transport distance after 10 minutes is summarized in Figure 3. A significant difference between different groups can be found. That is to say, sample A has the longest transport distance, followed by samples B, C, and D. The reason for this is that the TPI for these four samples is different, as shown in Table 1; a higher TPI leads to a longer transport route, in which the total distance of the outward appearance is lower.

Figure 3.

Relationship between water transport distance and turns per inch.

Moreover, from Figure 3 a significant difference cannot be found in each sample group besides the WP and WT of sample D, which means that for each sample, the distance of S, WP, and WT can be considered to be the same, except that for sample D, where the total distance for WP is longer than that for WT. This is presumably because when TPI is higher, water transport in WT is not saturated after 10 minutes.

The results of water transport distance versus time for samples A, B, C, and D are shown in Figures 4–7, respectively. The results show that regardless of interlacing, the distance of water transport increases in the process of time. Generally, at first, with the increase of time, the distance was increased linearly, then the speed slowed down until it became saturated and stopped increasing.

Figure 4.

Water transport distance for sample A.

Figure 5.

Water transport distance for sample B.

Figure 6.

Water transport distance for sample C.

Figure 7.

Water transport distance for sample D.

The initial transport speed during the first several minutes can be found from the slope shown in the inset of Figures 4–7. For each sample, S possesses the highest initial speed, proceeded by WP, and WT is the slowest. This is because that for non-interlaced yarn, the absorbed water was completely used for wicking by itself and there is no extra water expense; therefore, the initial speed is higher than the interlaced yarns. When cotton yarns are interlaced, absorbed water is transported not only for itself, but also for the transverse weft yarn, and as a result the initial speed for both WP and WT is lower than that for non-interlaced single yarn. However, for the interlaced yarns with the same TPI, as a whole, the initial speed of WP is higher than that of WT. This can be explained from the water absorption mechanism. Water transport in WT comes from the water migration from the interwoven point composed by WP and WT. The water migration in the interwoven point can be seen as a water trough for WT. It takes a little time for water transport from WP to WT, and therefore the initial speed of WT is lower than that of WP.

Figure 8 summarizes the initial speed of the four samples, including both WP and WT. No matter whether for WP or WT, the initial speed of sample A is the highest, followed by B and C, and D is the lowest. This means that the initial speed is decreased with the increasing of TPI. As cotton is a hydrophilic material, water transport in cotton yarn is carried out by the void between fibers. Increasing the twists of cotton yarn would decrease the void between fibers and hinder water transport speed in yarns. The initial speed of sample D in WT is almost 0, meaning that at higher TPI, it is difficult for water to be transported from WP to WT. This is also why the transport distance of sample D in WT is not saturated after 10 minutes.

Figure 8.

Relationship between time and distance, shown as the initial speed.

Investigating the effect of the interlacing angle

The results of water transport distance after 10 minutes for sample A at different interlacing angles are shown in Figure 9. As S is non-interlaced yarn, the interlacing angle has no effect on it. The transport distance of WP at different interlacing angles shows an increasing trend when the angle becomes larger. There is also significant difference between 40^o and 160^o. However, for WT, with increasing the angle, the transport distance shows a tendency to decrease. A significant difference can particularly be found between 40^o and 160^o, and 80^o and 160^o. The results of distance versus time at each interlacing angle in WP and WT are shown in Figures 10 and 11, respectively. In WT, the total distance at the highest interlacing angle (160^o) is the shortest, which can also be found from Figure 9. From the inset in Figure 10, the initial speed in WP is slightly increased with the increase of the interlacing angle. However, in WT it shows the opposite tendency, that is, with the increase of the interlacing angle, the initial speed is decreased.

Figure 9.

Water transport distance after 10 minutes for S, WP, and WT at each angle.

Figure 10.

Water transport distance of WP, showing differences at each interlacing angle.

Figure 11.

Water transport distance of WT, showing differences at each interlacing angle.

This phenomenon can be explained by the water migration mechanism at the interlacing point. Water transports from WP to WT when they contact with each other at the interlacing point, and the results show that the interlacing angle has an effect on the water migration. In order to investigate the interlacing conditions, Figure 12 shows microscope images and diagrams of the interlacing conditions at each setting angle. The red circle shows the warp yarn and a “U” shape around the warp yarn represents the weft yarn. By increasing the interlacing angle, the shape of the “U” composed by the weft yarn becomes more and more broadened, which means that the interlacing angle is accordingly increased. The angle was measured from the microscope images and compared with the setting value, with the results shown in Figure 13. It shows that the measured value and the setting value are very close, especially at large angles. At lower angles, the measured value was higher than the setting value. This is because for the setting value, the weft yarn was considered to be an ideal line, and the warp yarn was considered to be a point, which may cause some errors. As a whole, the results of the interlacing angle verified that the apparatus has creditability on the angle setting to a certain extent, and the setting angles can reflect the actual interlacing angles.

Figure 12.

Microscope images and diagrams of the interlacing condition at each interlacing angle:(a) 40^o; (b) 80^o; (c)120^o and (d) 160^o. (Color online only.)

Figure 13.

Measured interlacing angle compared with the setting value.

Herein, the interwoven length, meaning the length of arc “MN” in the inset of Figure 14, was used to represent the distance that was composed of WP and WT. For different interlacing angles, the interwoven length seems to be different. The real interwoven length at the interlacing point was measured and is shown in Figure 14. Increasing the interlacing angle actually decreased the interwoven length, and a linear relationship between the interwoven length and interlacing angle can be found. The results can also be found from the microscope images. At higher interlacing angles, the contact distance between WP and WT is shorter than at lower angles. Therefore, at higher interlacing angles, the interwoven length became shorter, which caused less water can be transported from WP to WT, and accordingly resulted in a slower initial speed of WT, as shown in the inset in Figure 11. As a result, for WT the initial speed was decreased with the increase of the interlacing angle. When the angle was 160^o, the interwoven length was the shortest and only a little water could be transported to WT, and therefore the total transport distance was shorter than that of the others. On the other hand, the total water absorbed by WP before interlacing can be considered the same. Increasing the interlacing angle caused a higher initial speed of WP because less water was transported from WP to WT.

Figure 14.

Relationship between the interwoven length and the interlacing angle, with arc length “MN” in the inset showing the interwoven length.

The results showed that the interlacing angle had an important influence on the water migration when yarns interlaced, then affected the initial speed, and finally had an effect on the total distance. Moreover, based on the structure model of woven fabric, the interlacing angle can be considered as the attribution of crimp caused by weave density. It is supposed that a higher weave density of woven fabric would result in a higher crimp and then, in the fabric structure, the interlacing angle would be lower, which would cause a higher water migration at the interlacing point. However, it cannot be concluded that the water migration on the woven fabric with a higher weave density is higher, since water migration depends not only on the interlaced yarns, but also the non-interlaced yarns.

This study fundamentally investigated the mechanism of water transport at the interlacing point, and it can be applied in water absorptivity not only for woven fabrics, but also for knitted fabrics, braids, and some other fiber assemblies.

Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to discuss the effect of the twist and interlacing angle on the water transport of interlaced yarns, which has potential to be used for predicting water transport in woven fabrics, braids, and some other fiber assemblies in the future. In order to achieve this purpose, a new apparatus was designed to investigate the water migration from the warp to the weft direction. We investigated cotton yarns with different TPI and the effect of the interlacing angles on water transport.

The results showed that both the TPI and interlacing angles had influence on the water transport distance and initial transport speed. For highly twisted yarn, the water transport distance for S, WP, and even WT was shorter. This is because a higher TPI caused a longer transporting route, even if the appearance route (measured length) was almost the same with the lower TPI yarns. For different interlacing angles, the interwoven lengths were different. Higher angles showed shorter interwoven lengths, which caused shorter water transport distance and lower initial speed in WT. For interlaced yarns, water migrated from WP to WT through the interlacing point. Increasing the angle would decrease the interlacing point, and therefore the water transport speed in WT would be slow and the total amount of migrated water would be smaller than that at the low interlacing angle during the same time.

This study discussed the effect of the TPI and interlacing angle of yarns on the water transport. It can be considered as a basic study, which fundamentally investigated the mechanism of water transport in the interlacing point. Furthermore, it shows understanding of the relationship between fabric structure and its water transporting property, which has the potential to simulate the physical properties of textiles. In the following work, the interlacing point will be further discussed to investigate the relationship between water transport speed and the interlacing point for different kinds of commercial yarns. Based on these studies, finally the prediction of water transport from yarns will be proposed. This work can be applied not only for woven fabrics, but also for knitted fabrics, braids, and some other fiber assemblies.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI (Grant number JP16K16256, JP17K14560, JP18H00965) and the TAKEUCHI IKUEI fellowship.

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