This study presents a comparative evaluation of chitosans derived from fungi (Agaricus bisporus) and mealworms (Tenebrio molitor) as sustainable antibacterial finishing agents for textile applications. The structural properties of fungal and insect chitosans were determined using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis, and elemental analysis. The applicability of fungal and insect chitosans to cotton fabrics, the antibacterial activity they impart to the fabric, and the durability of this antibacterial activity after washing were evaluated using the standardized Japanese Industry Standard L 1902 methodology. The analysis results showed that mealworm chitosan exhibited higher thermal stability (maximum degradation temperature of 325°C for mealworm and 309°C for fungal) and a higher degree of deacetylation (79.65% for mealworm and 8.7% for fungal) than fungal chitosan. FTIR spectroscopy and SEM analyses demonstrated that fungal and insect chitosans were physically bound to the fabric surface. Both chitosans were observed to impart good antibacterial activity (A = 3.86 for mealworm and A = 3.61 for fungal; ≥99.9% reduction) to the fabric surface. Consequently, this study demonstrates the usability of alternative chitosan sources in the textile industry while also identifying the limitations of these systems in terms of wash resistance, thereby providing a concrete roadmap for future research.
ZhangJChenBLiuJ, et al. Multifunctional antimicrobial and flame retardant cotton fabrics modified with a novel N, N-di (ethyl phosphate) biguanide. Cellulose2020; 27(12): 7255-7269. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-020-03256-w.
3.
CatovicCAbbesIBarreauM, et al. Cotton and flax textiles leachables impact differently cutaneous Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm formation and cytotoxicity. Life2022; 12(4): 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/life12040535.
4.
BajpaiVBajpaiSJhaMK, et al. Microbial adherence on textile materials: A review. J Environ Res Dev2011; 5: 666–672.
5.
YaoJZhengSWuX, et al. Durable antibacterial cotton fabrics based on synergy of bacterial repellence and bactericidal action. Colloid Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp2023; 677: 132408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2023.132408.
6.
YeZLiSZhaoS, et al. Textile coatings configured by double-nanoparticles to optimally couple superhydrophobic and antibacterial properties. Chem Eng J2021; 420: 127680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.127680.
7.
YılmazFBahtiyariMİ, Use of tea and tobacco industrial wastes in dyeing and antibacterial finishing of cotton fabrics. AATCC J Res2020; 7(5): 25-31. https://doi.org/10.14504/ajr.7.5.4.
8.
BahtiyariMİYılmazF. Evaluation of different natural dye sources in terms of metamerism. AATCC J Res2018; 5(3): 21-27. https://doi.org/10.14504/ajr.5.3.4
9.
YılmazFKoçakÖFÖzgerişFB, et al. Use of Viburnum opulus L.(Caprifoliaceae) in dyeing and antibacterial finishing of cotton. J Nat Fibers2020; 17(7): 1081-1088. https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2019.1691118.
10.
YılmazF.Application of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Root as a natural antibacterial agent in finishing of textile. Ind Crop Prod2020; 157: 112899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.112899.
11.
Çelik YılmazNYılmazAYılmazF. Coloring of woolen fabrics with natural resources and investigating the color perceptions of children on these fabrics. J Nat Fibers2023; 20(1): 2134269. https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2022.2134269.
12.
YılmazF.Application of Achillea millefolium as a natural antibacterial agent in finishing of textile. Fibers Polym2023; 24(9): 3175-3182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12221-023-00309-2.
13.
YılmazFAydınlıoğluÖBenliH, et al. Natural functionalisation of a traditional textile “Ehram”. Color Technol2023; 139(2): 182-189. https://doi.org/10.1111/cote.12641.
14.
BecenenNBozMSalanAS, et al. The role of some gemini surfactants in dyeing silk fabrics with dyes obtained from walnut shells. J Surfactants Deterg2026; 29: 249–264. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsde.70008.
15.
BecenenNErdoğanS.Chitosan and nano-TiO2 coating improves the flame retardancy of dyed and undyed denim fabrics by increasing the charring. J Ind Text2022; 51(1S): 1252S–1278S. https://doi.org/10.1177/15280837221099632.
16.
ErdoğanS.Textile finishing with chitosan and silver nanoparticles against Escherichia coli ATCC 8739. Trakya Univ J Nat Sci2020; 21(1): 21-32. https://doi.org/10.23902/trkjnat.641367.
17.
GuarnieriATriunfoMScieuzoC, et al. Antimicrobial properties of chitosan from different developmental stages of the bioconverter insectHermetia illucens. Sci Rep2022; 12: 8084. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-12150-3.
18.
ErdoğanSBecenenN.Chitosan films prepared with low nanometal content for developing protective denim fabrics. Hacettepe J Biol Chem2023; 51 (2): 163-181. https://doi.org/10.15671/hjbc.1127131.
19.
AlimiBAPathaniaSWilsonJ, et al. Extraction, quantification, characterization, and application in food packaging of chitin and chitosan from mushrooms: A review. Int J Biol Macromol2023; 237: 124195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.124195.
20.
RehmanKUHollahCWiesotzkiK, et al. Insect-derived chitin and chitosan: A still unexploited resource for the edible insect sector. Sustainability2023; 15: 4864. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15064864.
21.
ZhangZChenLJiJ, et al. Antibacterial properties of cotton fabrics treated with chitosan. Text Res J2003; 73(12): 1103-1106. https://doi.org/10.1177/0040517503073012.
22.
SavinSCraciunescuOOanceaA, et al. Antioxidant, cytotoxic and antimicrobial activity of chitosan preparations extracted from Ganoderma lucidum mushroom. Chem Biodivers2020; 17(7): e2000175. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbdv.202000175.
23.
BanZHorevBRutenbergR, et al. Efficient production of fungal chitosan utilizing an advanced freeze-thawing method; quality and activity studies. Food Hydrocoll2018; 81: 380e388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.03.010.
24.
TriunfoMTafiEGuarnieriA, et al. Characterization of chitin and chitosan derived from Hermetia illucens, a further step in a circular economy process. Sci Rep2022; 12: 6613. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-10423-5.
25.
WuTZivanovicSDraughonFA, et al. Chitin and chitosan—value-added products from mushroom waste. J Agric Food Chem2004; 52: 7905e7910. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0492565.
26.
FernandoLDDickwella WidanageMCPenfieldJ, et al. Structural polymorphism of chitin and chitosan in fungal cell walls from solid-state NMR and principal component analysis. Front Mol Biosci2021; 8: 814. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmolb.2021.727053.
27.
KayaEKahyaogluLNSumnuG.Development of curcumin incorporated composite films based on chitin and glucan complexes extracted from Agaricus bisporus for active packaging of chicken breast meat. Int J Biol Macromol2022; 221: 536–546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.09.025.
28.
HahnTRothaAJiaR, et al. Chitosan production with larval exoskeletons derived from the insect protein production. J Biotechnol2020; 310: 62–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiotec.2019.12.015.
29.
Van HuisA. Insects as food and feed, a new emerging agricultural sector: a review. J Insects Food Feed2020; 6(1): 27-44. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2019.0017.
30.
ErricoSSpagnolettaAVerardiA, et al. Tenebrio molitor as a source of interesting natural compounds, their recovery processes, biological effects, and safety aspects. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf2022; 21(1): 148-197. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12863.
31.
IfukuSNomuraRMorimotoM, et al. Preparation of chitin nanofibers from mushrooms. Mater2011; 4: 1417–1425. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma4081417.
32.
KayaMAsan-OzusaglamMErdoganS.Comparison of antimicrobial activities of newly obtained low molecular weight scorpion chitosan and medium molecular weight commercial chitosan. J Biosci Bioeng2016; 121(6): 678-684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiosc.2015.11.005.
33.
JISL1902:2015. Japanese industry standard for testing antibacterial activity and efficiency in textile products. Japanese Standards Association, Tokyo, Japan.
NafaryANezhadSAMJaliliS.Extraction and characterization of chitin and chitosan from Tenebrio molitor beetles and investigation of its antibacterial effect against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Adv Biomed Res2023; 12: 96. https://doi.org/10.4103/abr.abr_205_22.
36.
NawawiWMFWLeeKYKontturiE, et al. Surface properties of chitin-glucan nanopapers fromAgaricus bisporus. Int J Biol Macromol2020; 148: 677-687. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.01.141.
37.
Saenz-MendozaAIZamudio-FloresPBGarcía-AnayaMC, et al. Characterization of insect chitosan films from Tenebrio molitor and Brachystola magna and its comparison with commercial chitosan of different molecular weights. Int J Biol Macromol2020; 160: 953-963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.05.255.
38.
KrakowskaAMüllerDKulaA, et al. Fungal-derived chitosan from in vitro mushroom cultures as an antimicrobial matrix for silver nanoparticles in advanced bioactive materials. Mater2025; 18(23): 5342. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18235342.
39.
BecenenNErdoğanSFındıkEE. Investigation into the functional properties of cotton, wool, and denim textile materials finished with chitosan and the use of chitosan in textile-reinforced composites and medical textiles. In: Thomas S, Pius A, Gopi S (eds) Handbook of chitin and chitosan. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier. 2020, pp. 89-134.
de AndradeSMLadchumananandasivamRda RochaBG, et al. The use of exoskeletons of shrimp (Litopenaeus vanammei) and crab (Ucides cordatus) for the extraction of chitosan and production of nanomembrane. Mater Sci Appl2012; 3(7): 495-508. https://doi.org/10.4236/msa.2012.37070.
42.
KayaMBaranTErdoğanS, et al. Physicochemical comparison of chitin and chitosan obtained from larvae and adult Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata). Mat Sci Eng C2014; 45: 72–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2014.09.004.
43.
KayaMAkataIBaranT, et al. Physicochemical properties of chitin and chitosan produced from medicinal fungus (Fomitopsis pinicola). Food Biophys2015; 10: 162–168. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11483-014-9378-8.
44.
ErdoganSKayaMAkataI.Chitin extraction and chitosan production from cell wall of two mushroom species (Lactarius vellereus and Phyllophora ribis). AIP Conf Proc2017; 1809 (1): 020012. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4975427.
45.
Dos SantosZMCaroniALPFPereiraMR, et al. Determination of deacetylation degree of chitosan: A comparison between conductometric titration and CHN elemental analysis. Carbohydr Res2009; 344(18): 2591-2595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carres.2009.08.030.
46.
YenMTMauJL.Physico-chemical characterization of fungal chitosan from shiitake stipes. LWT-Food Sci Technol2007; 40(3): 472-479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2006.01.002.
CorreiaJRainertKTOliveiraFR, et al. Cationization of cotton fiber: An integrated view of cationic agents, processes variables, properties, market and future prospects. Cellulose2020; 27: 8527–8550. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-020-03361-w.
49.
MollebjergAPalmenLGGoriK, et al. The bacterial life cycle in textiles is governed by fiber hydrophobicity. Microbiol Spectr2021; 9 (2): 11-21. https://doi.org/10.1128/Spectrum.01185-21.
50.
GuptaDHaileA.Multifunctional properties of cotton fabric treated with chitosan and carboxymethyl chitosan. Carbohydr Polym2007; 69(1): 164–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2006.09.023.
51.
WiegandCAbelMRuthP, et al. In vitro assessment of the antimicrobial activity of wound dressings: Influence of the test method selected and impact of the pH. J Mater Sci Mater Med2015; 26: 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10856-014-5343-9.
52.
AranazIAlcántaraARCiveraMC, et al. Chitosan: An overview of its properties and applications. Polym2021; 13(19): 3256. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13193256.
53.
KongMChenX GXueYP, et al. Preparation and antibacterial activity of chitosan microshperes in a solid dispersing system. Front Mater Sci China2008; 2: 214-220. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11706-008-0036-2.
FuXShenYJiangX, et al. Chitosan derivatives with dual-antibacterial functional groups for antimicrobial finishing of cotton fabrics. Carbohydr Polym2011; 85(1): 221–227. DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2011.02.019.
