The Role of Relative Intrinsic Aspirations in Chinese Adolescents’ Prosocial Behaviors

Abstract

We examined Chinese adolescents’ aspirations and explored the relationship between relative intrinsic aspirations (RIA) and prosocial behaviors and whether adolescents with different levels of RIA have different emphases on self- and other-oriented considerations during prosocial decision making. In Study 1, 236 participants were recruited and completed a questionnaire containing the Aspiration Index and Prosocial Tendencies Measure. The results show that RIA are positively associated with adolescents’ prosocial behaviors. In Study 2, 158 adolescents completed a questionnaire containing the Aspiration Index and measurements of prosocial decision making and considerations in prosocial decision making. To some extent, adolescents with a lower level of RIA have a greater emphasis on self-oriented considerations, whereas adolescents with a higher level of RIA have a greater emphasis on other-oriented considerations. In addition, both studies suggest that Chinese adolescents value intrinsic aspirations above extrinsic ones.

Keywords

prosocial involvement motivation quantitative methods

Aspirations reflect long-term goals and values that individuals expect to accomplish over a lifetime and can be distinguished into extrinsic ones (e.g., financial success) and intrinsic ones (e.g., community feeling; Kasser & Ryan, 1996). Extrinsic aspirations are oriented toward obtaining rewards and the recognition of others, and intrinsic aspirations are oriented toward satisfying one’s own psychological needs (Deci & Ryan, 2000). They are on the opposite ends of the same dimension, and many researchers use relative intrinsic aspirations (RIA, which are computed by subtracting the importance score of extrinsic aspirations from the importance score of intrinsic aspirations) to demonstrate the associations between aspirations and human behaviors (e.g., Sheldon & Kasser, 2008).

Adolescence is an important stage for understanding the development of aspirations (Schmuck & Sheldon, 2001); however, researchers have primarily studied adult populations. Moreover, studies that have examined adolescents’ aspirations have been primarily conducted in Western countries. Aspirations reflect not only dispositional differences but also a wide range of reactions to social environments. In China, harmonious relationships and group solidarity are highly valued and encouraged (Riley, 1994), which may facilitate internalized aspirations of affiliation and community feeling in adolescents. On the other hand, adolescents are more and more exposed to commercial advertisements, which may increase extrinsic aspirations (Kasser, 2014). Therefore, it is important to examine adolescents’ aspirations in Chinese culture. Regarding gender differences, most studies conducted in Western cultures show that females are more intrinsically oriented than males (e.g., Morgan & Robinson, 2013). Therefore, we try to explore whether gender differences exist in the aspirations of Chinese adolescents.

Aspirations have direct effects on individuals’ attitudes and behaviors. For example, individuals who are oriented toward intrinsic aspirations tend to hold equalitarian viewpoints (Sheldon, Sheldon, & Osbaldiston, 2000), whereas extrinsically oriented people more frequently engage in antisocial behaviors (Kasser, 2014). Also, individuals with strong desires for financial success are less likely than those with lower financial goals to make contributions to their communities (Kasser, 2002) and to lend money to someone in need (McHoskey, 1999). However, much work remains to be done despite these findings, such as the relationship between aspirations and prosocial behaviors. Philosopher Martin Buber (1958) has distinguished interpersonal stance as an I–It relationship, in which others become reduced to objects that can be purchased, used, and discarded. Buber has also defined I–Thou relationship as one in which others are recognized as experiencing entities with subjective feelings and perspectives. Extrinsically oriented people are more likely to maintain I–It relationships, ignoring others’ subjective experiences, feelings, and desires, whereas intrinsically oriented individuals are more likely to maintain I–Thou relationships, caring more about others’ needs and feelings (Kasser, 2002). In line with this, individuals with higher levels of RIA might care more about others and subsequently perform more prosocial behaviors. Therefore, we propose that there is a positive relationship between RIA and prosocial behaviors. It is noteworthy that because generally girls have higher levels of prosocial behaviors than boys (e.g., Padilla-Walker, Dyer, Yorgason, Fraser, & Coyne, 2015), and prosocial behaviors during adolescence decrease followed by a slight increase (e.g., Carlo, Crockett, Randall, & Roesch, 2007), we include gender and age as control variables when testing this hypothesis.

In addition, understanding how aspirations relate to prosocial behaviors is important. People have various considerations when making prosocial decisions, such as “whether joining volunteer work can elicit self-enhancement (e.g., ability)” and “whether volunteer work can make other people feel warm and happy.” Consideration is defined as the thing an individual would take into account when making prosocial decisions in the current study. The considerations may vary from the desire for self-gain to the expression of internalized moral values (Eisenberg, Cumberland, Guthrie, Murphy, & Shepard, 2005), and can be distinguished into self-oriented and other-oriented considerations. Self-oriented consideration means focusing on the consequences/benefits of prosocial behavior for oneself rather on the morality of the behavior, whereas other-oriented consideration means helping others in response to others’ needs. Because extrinsically oriented individuals tend to treat others as things, they help others due more to self-enhancement values (Schwartz, 2006), such as strengthening their own resources (e.g., power) and gaining personal success (Kasser, 2011). On the other hand, intrinsically oriented individuals act prosocially due more to self-transcendence values (Schwartz, 2006), such as getting others out of trouble and promoting others’ welfare (Kasser, 2011). Therefore, we propose that extrinsic aspirations are associated closely to self-oriented considerations, whereas intrinsic aspirations are more closely associated with other-oriented considerations. Moreover, extrinsic aspirations motivate individuals to pursue their own benefits, whereas intrinsic aspirations motivate individuals to pursue others’ benefits (e.g., Weinstein, Przybylski, & Ryan, 2009). Based on these findings, we aim to understand the relationship between aspirations and prosocial behaviors by exploring the distinct associations between RIA and self-/other-oriented considerations.

Taken together, the present study aims to examine Chinese adolescents’ aspirations, including the effect of gender (Study 1 and Study 2); to examine the relationship between RIA and prosocial behaviors (Study 1); and to explore the distinct associations between RIA and self-/other-oriented considerations during prosocial decision making (Study 2). We hypothesize the following:

Hypothesis 1 (H1): RIA is positively related to adolescents’ prosocial behaviors.

Hypothesis 2 (H2): Adolescents with a lower level of RIA have a greater emphasis on self-oriented considerations, whereas adolescents with a higher level of RIA have a greater emphasis on other-oriented considerations during prosocial decision making.

Study 1

Method

Participants

Through convenience sampling, 240 participants were recruited in May 2013 from a public school in Fangshan District, Beijing, China. The school contains the junior high school and the senior high school with approximately 600 students. With permission from the principal, we randomly selected six classes from 7th to 12th grade (one class per grade, in China, junior high school covers Grades 7 to 9 and senior high school covers Grades 10 to 12). All participants were informed about the nature of the study and signed written consents. Four participants were excluded because they rated all of the items on some specific measurements with the same score. The sample was comprised of 101 boys, and the average age was 14.78 years (SD = 1.50). Regarding family monthly income, 52.12% of participants’ family monthly incomes were 5,000 RMB or less, 36.86% reported family incomes between 5,000 and 10,000 RMB, 7.63% reported family incomes of 10,000 RMB or more, and 3.39% of the data were missing. Beijing’s per capita monthly income in 2013 was 3,360 RMB, which is equal to US$547 (Beijing Statistical Information Net, 2014). Regarding parental education level, 49.15% of fathers and 45.76% of mothers had high school degrees or lower, 50.00% of fathers and 53.39% of mothers had undergraduate degrees or higher, and 0.85% of the data were missing.

Measures

Adolescent aspirations

Adolescent aspirations were measured using the modified 28-item Aspiration Index (Kasser & Ryan, 1996). Four items of the original scale measuring physical fitness were excluded because we only wanted to consider psychologically oriented aspirations. Two English major graduates with a background in psychology translated and back translated the scale. The scale consisted of three extrinsic aspirations: financial success, attractive appearance, and social recognition, and three intrinsic aspirations: self-acceptance, affiliation, and community feeling. Participants were instructed to rate each item according to how important each one was in their lives ranging from 1 (totally unimportant) to 5 (totally important). The means of the extrinsic and intrinsic aspiration scores were computed by averaging all of the items within the categories. The RIA scores were computed by subtracting the means of the extrinsic aspirations from the means of the intrinsic aspirations. The alpha coefficients of the extrinsic and intrinsic aspirations were .89 and .83. The data indicated an adequate fit of the two-factor model (Factor 1: extrinsic aspirations, Factor 2: intrinsic aspirations; χ² = 12.80, df = 7, χ² / df = 1.83, confirmatory fit index [CFI] = .96, goodness of fit index [GFI] = .98, root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] = .06, standardized root mean square residual [SRMR] = .03).

Prosocial behaviors

Prosocial behaviors were measured using the revised 26-item Prosocial Tendencies Measure (PTM; Carlo & Randall, 2002; Kou, Hong, Tan, & Li, 2007). It consisted of six types of prosocial behaviors: public, anonymous, altruistic, compliant, emotional, and dire prosocial behaviors. Participants were instructed to rate the extent to which statements described themselves ranging from 1 (does not describe me at all) to 5 (describes me greatly). The alpha coefficients of the public, anonymous, altruistic, compliant, emotional, and dire prosocial behaviors were .73, .80, .78, .82, .77, and .68, respectively. The data indicated an adequate fit of the six-factor model (χ² = 464.81, df = 278, χ² / df = 1.67, CFI = .92, GFI = .87, RMSEA = .05, SRMR = .06).

Procedure

The participants were group tested and were told that they would complete an anonymous survey about adolescents’ social attitudes. Then, they completed a questionnaire containing the Aspiration Index, the PTM, and questions assessing demographic information. In the end, the participants were debriefed and were given small gifts. All procedures met the ethical guidelines of the American Psychological Association (APA) and were approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at Beijing Normal University.

Data analysis

MANOVA and t tests were used to examine adolescents’ aspirations and the effects of gender. Correlation and hierarchical regression analyses were used to examine the relationship between RIA and prosocial behaviors.

Results

Aspirations among Chinese adolescents

The mean values of extrinsic aspiration, intrinsic aspiration, and RIA were 3.21 (SD = 0.64), 4.19 (SD = 0.46), and 0.98 (SD = 0.59), respectively. Moreover, Chinese adolescents viewed intrinsic aspirations as more important than extrinsic aspirations (t = 25.23, df = 235, p < .001, d = 1.76, 1 − β = 1.00).

Regarding the effects of gender, only a significant difference of the assessment of valuing attractive appearance was found: MANOVA, F(1, 231) = 18.69, p < .001, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .08, 1 − β = .99. Girls were more likely than boys to say that attractive appearance was an important extrinsic aspiration (girls: M = 3.36, SD = 0.74; boys: M = 2.93, SD = 0.77). No gender differences were found regarding extrinsic aspirations, F(1, 231) = 3.17, p > .05, ns; intrinsic aspirations, F(1, 231) = 0.27, p > .05, ns; and RIA, F(1, 231) = 2.60, p > .05, ns.

Hypothesis test

Descriptive statistics and a correlation matrix for RIA and the six types of prosocial behaviors are summarized in Table 1. RIA were positively correlated with anonymous, altruistic, compliant, emotional, and dire prosocial behaviors, whereas no significant correlation between RIA and public prosocial behaviors was found.

Table 1.

The Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Matrix for the Six Types of Aspirations, RIA, and the Six Types of PB.

Variable	M (SD)	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13
1. Financial success	3.69 (0.75)	—
2. Attractive appearance	3.17 (0.78)	.54**	—
3. Social recognition	2.85 (0.79)	.54**	.52**	—
4. Self-acceptance	4.35 (0.56)	.30**	.24**	.25**	—
5. Affiliation	4.52 (0.58)	.38**	.40**	.23**	.49**	—
6. Community feeling	3.62 (0.78)	.14*	.19**	.43**	.29**	.27**	—
7. RIA	0.98 (0.59)							—
8. Public PB	3.18 (0.75)							−.03	—
9. Anonymous PB	3.53 (0.75)							.31**	.17*	—
10. Altruistic PB	3.85 (0.77)							.34**	.31**	.71**	—
11. Compliant PB	3.69 (0.65)							.17*	.31**	.47**	.58**	—
12. Emotional PB	3.71 (0.69)							.14*	.45**	.35**	.47**	.47**	—
13. Dire PB	3.82 (0.68)							.16*	.42**	.55**	.60**	.50**	.60**	—

Note. RIA = relative intrinsic aspirations; PB = prosocial behaviors.

p < .05. **p < .01.

Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that, after controlling for gender and age, RIA was still positively related to adolescents’ anonymous, altruistic, compliant, emotional, and dire prosocial behaviors with adequate effect sizes (ΔR² = .02 ~ .12; see Table 2). Overall, RIA was positively associated with adolescents’ prosocial behaviors.

Table 2.

The Effects of RIA on PB in Adolescents.

Variable	Model 1						Model 2
Variable	β	t	R ²	F	ΔR²	ΔF	β	t	R ²	F	ΔR²	ΔF
Public PB
Gender	−.12	−1.29	.08	10.09***	.08	10.09***	−.13	−1.35	.08	6.83***	.00	0.38
Age	−.14	−4.32***	.08	10.09***	.08	10.09***	−.14	−4.31***
RIA							−.05	−0.62
Anonymous PB
Gender	.11	1.12	.02	2.73	.02	2.73	.15	1.65	.13	10.84***	.10	26.43***
Age	−.07	−2.05*	.02	2.73	.02	2.73	−.07	−2.14*
RIA							.40	5.14***
Altruistic PB
Gender	.18	1.84	.03	3.87*	.03	3.87*	.25	2.60*
Age	−.07	−2.05*	.03	3.87*	.03	3.87*	−.07	−2.19*	.16	13.79***	.12	32.56***
RIA							.46	5.71***
Compliant PB
Gender	.07	0.86	.05	6.26**	.05	6.26**	.10	1.18
Age	−.10	−3.43**	.05	6.26**	.05	6.26**	−.10	−3.46**	.08	6.62***	.03	7.00**
RIA							.19	2.65**
Emotional PB
Gender	.06	0.63	.07	8.72***	.07	8.72***	.08	0.91
Age	−.12	−4.12***	.07	8.72***	.07	8.72***	−.12	−4.15***	.10	7.91***	.02	5.91*
RIA							.18	2.43*
Dire PB
Gender	.01	0.10	.02	2.78	.02	2.78	.03	0.35
Age	−.07	−2.35*	.02	2.78	.02	2.78	−.07	−2.38*	.05	3.91**	.03	6.05*
RIA							.19	2.46*

Note. RIA = relative intrinsic aspirations; PB = prosocial behaviors.

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Study 2

Method

Participants

Through convenience sampling, 170 participants were recruited in September 2013 from a public junior high school in Dongcheng District, Beijing, China. The school contains approximately 300 students. With permission from the principal, we randomly selected four classes from seventh to ninth grade (one class from Grade 7, two classes from Grade 8, and one class from Grade 9). No participants had participated in the survey in Study 1. All participants were informed about the nature of the study and signed written consent forms. Twelve participants were excluded because they rated the items of the Aspiration Index all 1 or all 5. The average age of the participants was 13.44 years (SD = 0.73), 81 boys were included, 47.47% of participants reported family monthly incomes of 5,000 RMB or less, 34.18% reported family incomes between 5,000 and 10,000 RMB, 17.72% reported family incomes of 10,000 RMB or more, and 0.63% of the data were missing. Regarding the parental education level, 45.57% of fathers and 44.30% of mothers had high school degrees or lower, 53.80% of fathers and 55.70% of mothers had undergraduate degrees or higher, and 0.63% of the data were missing.

Measures

Adolescent aspirations

Adolescent aspirations were measured using the same modified Aspiration Index as used in Study 1. The alpha coefficients of extrinsic and intrinsic aspirations were .91 and .74. The data indicated an adequate fit of the two-factor model (χ² = 11.39, df = 8, χ² / df = 1.42, CFI = .99, GFI = .98, RMSEA = .05, SRMR = .05).

Prosocial decision making

Prosocial decision making was measured through a hypothetical scenario, which was adapted from five pilot focus-group interviews. We conducted these interviews in five high schools and recruited participants by handing out flyers in the schools (25 adolescents, 13 boys, with five participants each group; age: M = 13.73, SD = 1.10). The participants were asked to list the three most common prosocial behaviors in their daily life, and the results showed that community service (especially helping the old and lonely people) was the most common behavior. Therefore, we developed the following hypothetical scenario:

The Elderly Welfare Foundation in our community is now recruiting students to form a volunteer team to help old people do everyday things, such as cleaning and pet sitting. Joining the team means spending your spare time performing this volunteer service. The foundation wants to identify students who have a strong willingness to join the team through a prior investigation. Please answer the following related questions. The foundation will rank the students’ willingness from high to low and select the ones with higher willingness as the team members. Namely, the greater level of willingness you have, the more likely you are to join the team.

Three items (“How willing are you to join the volunteer team?” “How often will you perform the volunteer service if you join the team?” and “If you join the team, what percent of spare time will you commit to the volunteer service?”) followed the hypothetical scenario to measure adolescents’ prosocial decision making. The first two items were based on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (completely unwilling to/seldom) to 9 (completely willing to/frequently), and the last was based on a 9-point percentage interval (0%, 10%, 20%, . . . , 70%, 80%). The percentages were then coded 1 to 9. The alpha coefficient of these three items was .86.

Considerations in prosocial decision making

Ten considerations were adapted from the same five pilot focus-group interviews, in which students were asked to talk about the things adolescents would take into account when they decided whether to help others (see Table 3). Then, we showed the hypothetical scenario and considerations to 21 PhD students majoring in psychology and told them that

among these considerations, some occur when an individual focuses on the consequences of the prosocial behavior for themselves (i.e. self-oriented considerations), some occur when an individual helps others in response to others’ needs (i.e. other-oriented considerations), and some are difficult to assign as either self- or other-oriented considerations (i.e. unclassifiable considerations). Please categorize these considerations into one of these three categories.

Table 3.

Categorization of the Considerations involved in Prosocial Decision Making (N = 21).

No.	Considerations	Frequency (categorized as self-oriented)	Frequency (categorized as other-oriented)	Frequency (unclassifiable)	Category
A	Whether joining volunteer work can elicit self-enhancement (e.g., ability).	21	0	0	S
B	Whether I would have enough spare time to do volunteer work.	18	0	3	S
C	Whether volunteer work can make other people feel warm and happy.	0	21	0	O
D	Whether the students around me join volunteer work.	15	0	6	S
E	Other people’s comments on whether I join volunteer work.	20	0	1	S
F	Whether joining volunteer work can make me feel satisfied.	19	1	1	S
G	Whether I have the ability to do volunteer work.	13	6	2	U
H	Whether joining volunteer work can give me more honor than others.	21	0	0	S
I	Whether joining volunteer work can help people in need.	0	20	1	O
J	Whether joining volunteer work is profitable for my future.	21	0	0	S

Note. S = self-oriented considerations; O = other-oriented considerations; U = unclassifiable considerations.

Finally, we categorized these considerations into one of the three categories if more than two thirds of the PhD students agreed with the categorization. The results showed that Consideration A, B, D, E, F, H, and J were self-oriented, Consideration C and I were other-oriented, and Consideration G was unclassifiable (see Table 3). It is noteworthy that numbers of self- and other-oriented considerations are not the same because all of these considerations originated from the interviewed students’ opinions rather than the researchers’ arrangements.

A rank-order method was used (Williams, Hedberg, Cox, & Deci, 2000). The participants were instructed to select and rank the three most important and the three most unimportant considerations when they decided whether to join the volunteer team or not. For each participant, the scores of the first, second, and third most important considerations were coded 3, 2, and 1, respectively; the scores of the first, second, and third most unimportant considerations were coded −3, −2, and −1, respectively; and the scores of the four unmentioned considerations were all coded 0. For each consideration, the mean of the coded scores was computed. A higher mean indicated that the consideration was emphasized to a greater extent by the participants.

Procedure

The participants were group tested and were told that they would complete an anonymous survey about adolescents’ social attitudes. Then, they completed a questionnaire containing the Aspiration Index, and questions about prosocial decision making, considerations in prosocial decision making, and demographic information. In the end, the participants were debriefed and were given small gifts. All procedures met the ethical guidelines of the APA and were approved by the IRB at Beijing Normal University.

Data analysis

MANOVA and t tests were used to examine adolescents’ aspirations and the effects of gender. Next, the participants were split into low and high RIA groups using the median score as the dividing line, and the means of the considerations in the two groups were computed and compared.

Results

Aspirations among Chinese adolescents

The means of the financial success, attractive appearance, social recognition, self-acceptance, affiliation, and community feeling aspiration scores were 3.45 (SD = 0.90), 2.97 (SD = 0.91), 2.80 (SD = 0.90), 4.47 (SD = 0.55), 4.44 (SD = 0.54), and 3.81 (SD = 0.71), respectively. The means of the extrinsic aspirations, intrinsic aspirations, and RIA scores were 3.05 (SD = 0.80), 4.22 (SD = 0.45), and 1.17 (SD = 0.85), respectively. Again, Chinese adolescents valued intrinsic aspirations above extrinsic aspirations (t = 17.37, df = 157, p < .001, d = 1.38, 1 − β = 1.00).

Regarding the effects of gender, only significant differences in attractive appearance (MANOVA), F(1, 152) = 7.02, p < .01, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .04, 1 − β = .75, and affiliation aspirations (MANOVA), F(1, 152) = 4.74, p < .05, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .03, 1 − β = .58, were found, girls were more likely than boys to indicate that an attractive appearance (girls: M = 3.17, SD = 0.92; boys: M = 2.79, SD = 0.88) and affiliation (girls: M = 4.54, SD = 0.49; boys: M = 4.35, SD = 0.57) were important aspirations. Again, there were no gender differences for the extrinsic aspirations, F(1, 152) = 2.61, p > .05, ns; intrinsic aspirations, F(1, 152) = 2.90, p > .05, ns; and RIA, F(1, 152) = 0.36, p > .05, ns.

Hypothesis test

Participants whose scores were lower than the median score were in the low RIA group (N = 79) and whose scores were higher than the median score were in the high RIA group (N = 79). The mean RIA score in the low group was significantly lower than that in the high group (low group: M = 0.53, SD = 0.53; high group: M = 1.82, SD = 0.58; t = −14.67, df = 156, p < .001, d = 2.35, 1 − β = 1.00). In addition, participants’ decision-making choices in the low group were significantly less prosocial than those in the high group (low group: M = 5.35, SD = 1.74; high group: M = 5.93, SD = 1.50; t = −2.26, df = 156, p < .05, d = 0.36, 1 − β = 0.62). The results indicated that the split was valid.

Furthermore, the means of the 10 considerations in the two groups were both computed (see Table 4). In the low group, the first, second, and third most important considerations were Consideration B, A, and C; in the high group, the first, second, and third most important considerations were Consideration C, A, and B. Adolescents in the low group emphasized “whether I would have enough spare time to do volunteer work” (Consideration B) in comparison with “whether volunteer work can make other people feel warm and happy” (Consideration C), whereas adolescents in the high group had an opposite pattern regarding these two considerations. In addition, Consideration I was ranked in the fifth place in the low group and in the fourth place in the high group, which indicated that adolescents in the high group emphasized “whether joining volunteer work can help people in need” (Consideration I) more than adolescents in the low group. Because Consideration B was self-oriented and C and I were other-oriented, we could say that, to some extent, adolescents with a lower level of RIA had a greater emphasis on self-oriented considerations, whereas adolescents with a higher level of RIA had a greater emphasis on other-oriented considerations.

Table 4.

The Means and Rankings of the 10 Considerations in the Low and High RIA Groups.

Group	Variable	A	B	C	D	E	F	G	H	I	J
	Category	S	S	O	S	S	S	U	S	O	S
Low group	means	0.89	0.91	0.85	−0.22	−0.68	0.11	0.29	−1.06	0.19	−1.14
Low group	Rankings	2	1	3	7	8	6	4	9	5	10
High group	Means	1.08	0.59	1.29	−0.44	−0.92	0.35	0.19	−1.38	0.49	−1.23
High group	Rankings	2	3	1	7	8	5	6	10	4	9

Note. RIA = relative intrinsic aspirations; S = self-oriented considerations; O = other-oriented considerations; U = unclassifiable considerations.

Discussion

Overall Aspirations Among Chinese Adolescents

Generally, Chinese adolescents valued intrinsic aspirations above extrinsic ones, which was consistent with the only study we are aware of that examined Chinese adolescents’ aspirations (Lekes, Gingras, Philippe, Koestner, & Fang, 2010). This might be because harmonious relationships and group solidarity are highly valued in China. A primary task of socialization in collectivistic cultures is to help children learn how to control individualistically oriented acts to develop and maintain harmonious relationship with others (Riley, 1994). Cultural endorsement of harmonious relationships and group solidarity may facilitate the socialization process in which adolescents internalize aspirations of affiliation and community feeling. Therefore, Chinese adolescents valued intrinsic aspirations above extrinsic ones. Future research is needed to understand adolescents’ aspirations in various cultures.

There were no gender differences in the overall value extrinsic, intrinsic, and RIA in both studies, which is consistent with the only study that examined Chinese adolescents’ aspirations suggesting no gender differences (Lekes et al., 2010), but differed from Western cultures in which females are more intrinsically oriented than males (e.g., Morgan & Robinson, 2013). Moreover, girls were more likely than boys to say that an attractive appearance was an important extrinsic aspiration in both studies and that affiliation was an important intrinsic aspiration in Study 2. This inconsistency might be due to sample deviation because both studies included only one sample site. In addition, other studies did not present specific gender differences in respect to the six types of aspirations (e.g., Niemiec, Ryan, & Deci, 2009). Therefore, it is difficult to draw a conclusion about gender differences related to attractive appearance and affiliation aspirations.

The Relationship Between RIA and Prosocial Behaviors

The RIA levels were positively associated with adolescents’ prosocial behaviors. The extent to which individuals focus on extrinsic or intrinsic pursuits affects the way they treat and interact with other people. When people place a strong emphasis on extrinsic aspirations, they may treat other people like things (Kasser, 2002). In such I–It relationships (Buber, 1958), others’ subjective experiences and feelings are ignored, seen as unimportant, or viewed only in terms of usefulness to oneself. In contrast, individuals with a higher level of RIA are more likely to build and maintain I–Thou relationships (Kasser, 2002), in which other people are regarded as experiencing entities with subjective feelings and perspectives that may differ from one’s own, but are nonetheless just as important as themselves (Buber, 1958). Therefore, adolescents in the current study with higher levels of RIA might be more likely to interact with other people from the “I–Thou” interpersonal stance; thus, when people around have needs, they performed more anonymous, altruistic, compliant, emotional, and dire prosocial behaviors. By comparison, the adolescents with lower levels of RIA might tend to treat other people as something of no value and regard helping them without payoff as meaningless, and thus were less likely to help.

Different Levels of RIA and Different Emphases on Considerations

To some extent, adolescents with lower levels of RIA had a greater emphasis on self-oriented considerations, whereas adolescents with higher levels of RIA had a greater emphasis on other-oriented considerations when making prosocial decisions. People usually engage in a decision process and estimate the costs and rewards of offering to help before taking action, and considerations vary between different groups of individuals (Penner, Fritzsche, Craiger, & Freifeld, 1995). The adolescents who were less intrinsically motivated might regard their own rewards of offering to help as more important than the potential benefit of elderly people due to self-enhancement values. Moreover, the adolescents with lower levels of RIA perhaps took an I–It interpersonal stance and treated others as things. Therefore, the self-oriented consideration “whether I would have enough spare time to do volunteer work” came first. Instead, the adolescents who were more intrinsically motivated might have felt a natural concern for others (Sheldon & Kasser, 1995) and held a high desire to promote the welfare of the elderly people due to self-transcendence values. Therefore, the other-oriented consideration “whether volunteer work can make other people feel warm and happy” came first. Consistently, the adolescents with a higher level of RIA placed a greater emphasis on the other-oriented consideration “whether joining volunteer work can help people in need” more than those with lower levels of RIA. Regardless of different rankings, the low and high relative aspiration groups had a similar overall pattern when ranking the 10 considerations (e.g., the three most important considerations were the same in the two groups). This may be because the rank-order method and the coding method did not fully reflect the different emphases on self-/other-oriented considerations between the two groups, as only the three most important and the three most unimportant considerations were selected and ranked, and scores of the unmentioned considerations were all coded 0. All considerations should be ranked and coded with different scores in future research.

Limitations and Implications

First, the two studies were both conducted in only one school site in Beijing, which might have elicited sample deviation. Second, only one scenario was used to assess prosocial decision making, which might weaken the robustness of the results. Third, the 10 considerations were generated from only five pilot focus-group interviews. However, it is possible that there exist other considerations outside of the interviews. Finally, the rank-order method may not fully reflect the patterns of emphases on considerations because participants may hold the same weightings for different considerations.

Despite these limitations, we have extended the previous work on exploring adolescents’ aspirations by examining them in a Chinese sample, suggesting that culture differences indeed exist. Furthermore, because RIA play an important role in promoting prosocial behaviors, cultivating intrinsic aspirations may be a feasible idea to increase adolescents’ prosocial behaviors. For example, parents should help adolescents with the development of intrinsic life goals, such as intimate relationships, personal growth, and community involvement. Teachers should encourage adolescents to engage in more meaningful peer and academic activities to help them develop intrinsic aspirations.

Conclusion

The present study takes a significant step toward understanding the relationship between RIA and prosocial behaviors among Chinese adolescents. Chinese adolescents value intrinsic aspirations above extrinsic ones. Moreover, higher levels of RIA on adolescents are associated with a greater level of prosocial behaviors and a stronger emphasis on other- verses self-oriented considerations when making prosocial decisions.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was supported by the Ministry of Education (MOE) Project of Key Research Institutes of Humanities and Social Science at Universities (10JJDXLX002), the Project of Beijing Municipal Commission of Education (PXM2014_014202_07_000067), and National Key Technologies R&D Program of China (2012BAI36B03).

Author Biographies

Xinyuan Fu is a PhD candidate at Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University.

Xiaolan Liu is a recent graduate of Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University; she is now working at Beijing Yanshan Center of Education Research.

Ying Yang is a master student at Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University.

Mengyuan Zhang is a PhD candidate at Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University.

Yu Kou is a professor at Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University.

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