The Reciprocal Relationship Between Awe and Perceived Stress Among Chinese Early Adolescents: A Cross-Lagged Analysis

Abstract

Stress among adolescents is a growing concern due to its adverse effects on health and social functioning, especially in China. Awe is related to relief of daily stress and reduction of stress-related symptoms. However, existing research related to perceived stress in Chinese adolescents has not considered awe; moreover, the possible influence of perceived stress on the tendency to feel awe is poorly understood. This study used two-wave cross-lagged analysis to explore the relationship between awe and perceived stress among Chinese adolescents. Three hundred and fifty Chinese middle school students aged 13 to 16 completed the Dispositional Awe Scale and Perceived Stress Scale questionnaires twice, with 3 months between responses. Results show that awe predicts lower levels of perceived stress over time, and perceived stress predicts lower levels of awe, supporting the idea of a reciprocal relationship between the two. This suggests potential practical interventions for stress management in Chinese adolescents.

Keywords

awe perceived stress cross-lagged analysis adolescents

Introduction

Daily encounters can be stressful. Individuals’ interpretation and perception of stressful events is referred to as stress perception; when life events are perceived to be threatening and harmful by an individual who lacks sufficient coping resources, their stress perception will be high (Cohen et al., 1983, 1991). Lazarus and Folkman (1984) believed that stress perception is related to physical and mental health. Recent studies support this view; increased cortisol reactivity to stress is associated with adverse cardiovascular outcomes, and may even promote suicide risk (e.g., Hamer & Steptoe, 2012; O’Connor et al., 2020). Therefore, it is necessary to systematically explore perceived stress to help individuals better alleviate the adverse consequences of stress. In such studies, the life stage of adolescence deserves special consideration.

Maintaining good mental health is essential for adolescents and emerging adults (Adams, 2005; Smetana et al., 2006), as it can bring many benefits including a lower likelihood of drug use or other risky behaviors (Butler et al., 2019; Sofija et al., 2020). Since good academic performance is highly valued in Chinese culture, young adolescents, especially those who face senior high school entrance examinations, experience more stress than their Western counterparts do because of increased learning burdens, high expectations from parents, and a weakened parent–adolescent bond (Sun et al., 2012; L. Wang et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2021). The 30th World Mental Health Day in 2021 in China aimed to call on the entire society to pay attention to and support the mental health promotion of children and adolescents (National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China - Disease Prevention and Control Center, 2021). Research on adolescents identifies three primary contexts of stressors that might impact their mental health: family, peer networks, and school environment (Rohrman, 2014). Empirical research has also found that perceived stress can affect adolescents’ health issues, relating to more unhealthy eating behaviors (Hill et al., 2018) and mental disorders (Lindholdt et al., 2022). Therefore, particularly in Chinese culture, perceived stress in adolescence and methods for relieving it are critical topics for study.

Because of the important role in fostering well-being and personal development, awe has received increasing attention in recent years (Monroy & Keltner, 2022; Yaden et al., 2017). Awe refers to the feeling of wonder and amazement when people engage in situations beyond their existing cognitive categories that require psychological adaptation (Keltner & Haidt, 2003). Although awe may sometimes carry feelings of fear, it is usually perceived as having positive valence, accompanied by joy and happiness (Gordon et al., 2017; Shiota et al., 2006). One can feel awe when observing beautiful and magnificent natural landscapes, looking up at the universe, confronting an admirable role model, or even enjoying compelling music (Graziosi & Yaden, 2021; Keltner & Haidt, 2003; Yaden et al., 2016). Social psychologists usually study awe from two perspectives: emotional/state awe (experienced in situations that exceed the scope of one’s existing cognitive structures; Keltner & Haidt, 2003) and dispositional/trait awe (one’s tendency to experience emotional awe consistently across contexts; Shiota et al., 2006). Previous studies found that inducing emotional awe may promote one’s prosocial behaviors (Piff et al., 2015) and encourage collective participation (Bai et al., 2017), as well as immediately enhance their life satisfaction (Bai et al., 2021). Importantly, the experience of awe may also reduce individuals’ perception or experience of stress, including relieving daily stress (Bai et al., 2021; J. Liu et al., 2023) and reducing stress-related symptoms (Anderson et al., 2018). Research on dispositional awe has also found a positive relationship between awe and well-being (X. Dong & Geng, 2022; Zhao & Zhang, 2022). However, the majority of the above studies relating to awe and stress were conducted in adult populations (e.g., college students), with only two involving adolescents (Anderson et al., 2018; X. Dong & Geng, 2022), one of which involved Chinese adolescents (X. Dong & Geng, 2022). Moreover, it remains unclear whether an individual’s perception of stress affects later awe experiences and/or furthers an individual’s tendency to feel awe. Research has also paid little attention to the potential long-term effects of awe on perceived stress. To fill these gaps, this study plans to investigate the relationship between dispositional awe and perceived stress in Chinese adolescents to support their healthy development.

Reciprocal Relationship Between Awe and Stress

Relationship of awe to lower levels of perceived stress over time

Awe is a positive emotion that can awaken self-transcendence (i.e., reaching beyond one’s self-boundary; Keltner & Haidt, 2003; Yaden et al., 2017). A previous study on Chinese undergraduate students confirmed the moderating effects of self-transcendence on the relationship between stress and psychological well-being. The study found that higher levels of self-transcendence can reduce the negative impact of perceived stress on psychological well-being (Hong, 2008). Self-transcendence has been found to be negatively correlated with perceived stress in a sample of multiple sclerosis patients from Iran (Abdollahi et al., 2021). In addition, the “small-self hypothesis” of awe also argued that experiencing awe could reduce one’s concern for oneself (Bai et al., 2017; Piff et al., 2015), and that the reduction of self-concern is a reliable predictor of stress reduction (Ayduk & Kross, 2008; Kross & Ayduk, 2011). Moreover, the broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 2001) notes that positive emotions (like awe) can broaden one’s attention and cognitive resources, thus making one conducive to coping with stress and constructing resources.

The view that awe may reduce one’s perceived stress has been supported by empirical studies. A field experiment involving junior and senior high school students in the U.S. found that the awe induced by a one-day rafting trip was positively related to their reduction of stress-related symptoms after 1 week, while other positive emotions (e.g., amusement, contentment) had no such effects (Anderson et al., 2018). Other research in Western cultures had similar results. Adult participants (college students) who reported higher levels of dispositional awe or who were primed with feelings of awe emotion reported lower levels of daily stress (Bai et al., 2021); after awe-priming, adult participants exhibited lower levels of sympathetic autonomic arousal when talking about their daily stresses (Bai et al., 2021). Dispositional awe and the feeling of awe experienced the day of participating in the study were also linked to lower levels of proinflammatory cytokines in undergraduates from the U.S., which are an immune system response brought on by stress, highlighting awe’s physiological role in the stress response (Stellar et al., 2015). In the Chinese adult population, emotional awe-priming may also relieve daily concerns and promote instant well-being (J. Liu et al., 2023). Taken together, emotional awe has been shown to reduce stress-related symptoms in American adolescents and relieve daily concerns both in Western and Chinese adult populations (Anderson et al., 2018; Bai et al., 2021; J. Liu et al., 2023). However, existing research on perceived stress in Chinese adolescents has not considered awe. In the present study, we focused on dispositional awe using a cross-lagged design to explore whether it can predict lower levels of perceived stress three months later in Chinese adolescents.

Hypothesis 1: Awe is related to lower levels of perceived stress over time.

Relationship of perceived stress to lower levels of awe over time

Self-transcendent emotions like awe are usually thought to originate in the attentive evaluation of others (Yaden et al., 2017), which encourages individuals to focus on the needs and desires of others over those of themselves (Stellar et al., 2017). When facing stressful events, individuals with high levels of perceived stress might have limited attention resources and show attentional bias toward threat (e.g. Olver et al., 2015). Thus, they pay considerable attention to the problems they face while ignoring external situations (Sandi, 2013; Williams et al., 1996), limiting their self-transcendental experiences of awe.

A longitudinal study in Western adolescents found that self-reported exposure to stressful life events was associated with increased engagement in rumination (Michl et al., 2013). Ruminating is a kind of excessive self-concern, especially related to the over-reflection and spontaneous repetition of negative and stressful events (Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow, 1991). Individuals who engage in rumination focus on themselves and their problems, which might affect the generation of the self-transcendental experience of awe.

Additionally, the broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 2001) also pointed out that adaptive coping of stress can promote the generation of positive emotions, while unsuccessful coping (represented as higher levels of perceived stress) can hinder the generation of positive emotions (e.g., awe) in the future. Therefore, higher levels of perceived stress seem to negatively predict dispositional awe.

Hypothesis 2: Perceived stress is related to lower levels of awe over time.

Together, Hypotheses 1 and 2 predict a reciprocal relationship in which dispositional awe and perceived stress obstruct each other over time in a mutual manner.

The Present Study

Stress among adolescents is a critical topic due to its adverse effects on their physical and mental health (Lindholdt et al., 2022). This cross-lagged study on the relationship between dispositional awe and perceived stress focuses on Chinese adolescents to provide support for the adaptation and development of young people in China. By focusing on dispositional awe, the present study aimed to supplement the existing findings of emotional awe on relieving stress in Western adolescents and Chinese adults (Anderson et al., 2018; J. Liu et al., 2023). Furthermore, the two-wave cross-lagged design with an interval of 3 months allows for the investigation of the possible effect of perceived stress on later awe.

Materials and Methods

Participants and Procedure

We recruited adolescents from two middle schools in Xi’an, Shaanxi province, to participate in an online two-wave study. Convenience sampling was employed to recruit participants by class. Scales used in the present study were presented on a Chinese questionnaire measurement platform named Questionnaire Star (https://www.wjx.cn). As some students may not have personal mobile phone numbers or email accounts to receive the link to the scales, after obtaining the consent of students and their parents, school teachers sent the link to the parents for students to complete the online survey. At time point 1 (T1), 363 students completed the survey, which included two validated self-reported scales (Dispositional Awe Scale, Shiota et al., 2006; Perceived Stress Scale, Cohen et al., 1983) and demographic information (name, gender, age, student ID number). Twelve weeks later (T2), 359 students completed the follow-up survey, including the two scales from T1 and demographic information. Four students did not complete the second questionnaire, and nine students failed the attention check item (failed to follow the requirement to choose a specific answer that indicated they failed to complete the questionnaires carefully), leaving 13 sets of data unusable. The final sample size was 350 middle school students aged 13 to 16 (M_age = 14.37, SD_age = 0.55), which included 160 boys (45.7%) and 190 girls (54.3%). All participants were debriefed and given a small gift (worth a small monetary amount) in appreciation of their participation.

Measures

Awe

The Chinese version of the Dispositional Awe Scale is a subscale of the Dispositional Positive Emotion Scales (DPES; Shiota et al., 2006) revised by R. Dong et al. (2013), which contains six self-reported items, such as “I feel wonder almost every day.” Items are scored on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree). The scale is widely used and has adequate psychometric properties in various populations, including Chinese adolescents (X. Dong & Geng, 2022; R. Dong & Ni, 2020). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to justify the validity of the measurements. Initially, the results did not show a good fit, and the factor loading of one item was under 0.40 at both time points (0.115 at T1 and 0.036 at T2). According to Ford et al.’s (1986) recommendation, we deleted this item which was consistent with the results in Chinese emerging adults (R. Dong & Ni, 2020). The CFA then showed good fit: χ²/df = 2.614, CFI = 0.994, TLI = 0.979, RMSEA = 0.068, SRMR = 0.016 for T1; χ²/df = 2.269, CFI = 0.994, TLI = 0.981, RMSEA = 0.060, SRMR = 0.016 for T2. The loadings of the remaining five items ranged from 0.666 to 0.811 at T1, and from 0.524 to 0.783 at T2 (ps < .001). The Cronbach’s α coefficients were 0.87 at T1 and 0.84 at T2 after deleting the item.

Perceived stress

The Chinese version of the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS; Cohen et al., 1983) revised by Yuan and Lin (2009) was used to measure the extent to which adolescents evaluate their life as stressful. It contains 10 self-report items in two dimensions: perceived stress (six items) and perceived coping ability (four items, reverse scored). An example item is “In the last month, how often have you been upset because of something that happened unexpectedly?” Each item is scored on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = never, 5 = very often). The scale is widely used and has shown satisfactory reliability and validity in Chinese adolescent populations (e.g., X. Liu et al., 2020). The CFA also showed good fit at both time points: χ²/df = 2.663, CFI = 0.951, TLI = 0.935, RMSEA = 0.069, SRMR = 0.051 for T1; χ²/df = 2.511, CFI = 0.952, TLI = 0.937, RMSEA = 0.066, SRMR = 0.051 for T2. The factor loading ranged from 0.539 to 0.790 at T1, and from 0.578 to 0.756 at T2 (ps < .001). In our study, the Cronbach’s α coefficients were 0.84 at T1 and 0.83 at T2.

Statistical Analysis

First, we conducted CFAs for the measurement model at both time points. The results are presented in “2.2 Measurement.”

Second, we used SPSS 25.0 to conduct a common method bias test, descriptive statistics, and correlation analysis of major variables at both time points.

Third, to test the concurrent and prospective links between awe and stress, four structural equation models were established in Mplus 8.3 (see Figure 1). Model 1 incorporated two auto-regressive paths, from T1 awe to T2 awe and from T1 stress to T2 stress. In Model 2, which was based on Model 1, we added a cross-lagged path from T1 awe to T2 stress. Model 3, also based on Model 1, added a cross-lagged path from T1 stress to T2 awe. Model 4 brought in all auto-regressive and cross-lagged paths in Models 1, 2, and 3. All variables were packaged into three parcels to use the latent scores, and the maximum likelihood method (ML) was utilized for analysis. Fit indices including χ²/df, CFI, TLI, RMSEA, and SRMR were used to evaluate the model: χ²/df < 5, CFI and TLI > 0.9, RMSEA and SRMR < 0.08, indicating that the model fit the data well (Hu & Bentler, 1998).

Figure 1.

Cross-lagged model between awe and perceived stress.

Results

Common Method Bias Test

We conducted the Harman single factor analysis at both time points. The results showed that there were three factors’ eigenvalues larger than one at both T1 and T2; the variance contribution of the first factor was 35.87% at T1 and 35.51% at T2, which were less than 40%, indicating there was no serious common method bias (Podsakoff et al., 2003).

Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Analysis

Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, and correlation coefficients of dispositional awe and perceived stress at both T1 and T2. It shows that all variables were significantly correlated with each other. Adolescents who reported more awe at T1 experienced more awe at T2 and perceived less stress at both T1 and T2.

Table 1.

Means, SD, and Correlation Coefficients for Awe and Perceived Stress for T1 and T2.

	M	SD	1	2	3	4
1. T1 awe	3.64	0.88	—
2. T2 awe	3.62	0.83	0.42**	—
3. T1 stress	2.63	0.62	−0.43**	−0.34**	—
4. T2 stress	2.64	0.62	−0.37**	−0.47**	0.52**	—

p < .01.

Model Comparison

To explore the concurrent and prospective relationships between awe and stress among Chinese adolescents, four models were established in this study. The fit indices of the four models are presented in Table 2. All four models showed an acceptable fit, with Model 4 (the reciprocal model) providing the best fit: χ²/df = 2.075, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.978, TLI = 0.970, RMSEA = 0.055, SRMR = 0.028. According to the chi-squared comparison (see Table 2), Model 4 was the best fitting model compared with the other models.

Table 2.

Fit Indices of the Four Models.

Model	χ²	df	χ²/df	CFI	TLI	RMSEA	SRMR	Comparison	Δχ²	Comparison	Δχ²
1	120.696	50	2.414	0.970	0.960	0.064	0.062
2	108.292	49	2.210	0.975	0.966	0.059	0.043	Model 1–2	12.404***
3	108.378	49	2.211	0.975	0.966	0.059	0.042	Model 1–3	12.318***	Model 2–4	8.686**
4	99.606	48	2.075	0.978	0.970	0.055	0.028	Model 1–4	21.09***	Model 3–4	8.772**

p < .01. ***p < .001.

Table 3 presents the standardized coefficients of autoregressive paths (stability) and cross-lagged paths of four models. According to Model 4, both auto-regressive paths were significant, indicating the stability of awe and perceived stress over three months. Cross-lagged paths from T1 awe to T2 stress and from T1 stress to T2 awe were significant, indicating that adolescents’ awe at T1 negatively predicted their perceived stress at T2, and higher stress perception at T1 predicted lower awe at T2. This suggests that a reciprocal relationship exists between awe and perceived stress among Chinese early adolescents.

Table 3.

Summary of the Standardized Coefficients of the Four Models.

Model	Autoregressive path	β	Cross-lagged path	β
1	T1 awe → T2 awe	.46***
1	T1 stress → T2 stress	.58***
2	T1 awe → T2 awe	.50***	T1 awe → T2 stress	−.22***
2	T1 stress → T2 stress	.46***	T1 awe → T2 stress	−.22***
3	T1 awe → T2 awe	.33***	T1 stress → T2 awe	−.23***
3	T1 stress → T2 stress	.61***	T1 stress → T2 awe	−.23***
4	T1 awe → T2 awe	.39***	T1 awe → T2 stress	−.19**
4	T1 stress → T2 stress	.51***	T1 stress → T2 awe	−.20**

p < .01. ***p < .001.

The results of Model 4 showed that 26.4% of the variances of T2 awe can be explained by the effects of T1 awe and T1 stress, and that 38.5% of the variances of T2 stress can be explained by the effects of T1 awe and T1 stress. Power analysis using an online app pwrSEM (Y. A. Wang & Rhemtulla, 2021) with a sample size of 350 and 1000 simulations showed that Model 4 can reach a power of 0.84 or more to detect the effects of T1 awe on T2 awe, T1 stress on T2 stress, T1 awe on T2 stress, and T1 stress on T2 awe.

Discussion

The current study explored the relationship between awe and perceived stress using a cross-lagged design in Chinese adolescents. Results showed a reciprocal relationship between dispositional awe and perceived stress, providing empirical support for the stress management of Chinese adolescents.

First, the present study showed that in Chinese adolescents, dispositional awe might be a predictor of lower levels of perceived stress three months later. This is consistent with the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotion (Fredrickson, 2001). According to this theory, state positive emotions can expand one’s momentary attentional and cognitive ranges, while feeling positive emotions frequently (i.e., dispositional positive emotions) can broaden one’s enduring physical and psychological resources and promote adaptive stress coping in the long-term, therefore reducing the perceived severity of stressful events. The results are also consistent with previous empirical findings. For example, emotional awe was proven to reduce self-concern in Chinese college students (Bai et al., 2017), which could further reduce the symptoms related to stress (Ayduk & Kross, 2008). Dispositional awe has also been linked to lower levels of reported daily stress in Western undergraduates (Bai et al., 2021). Results of the present study reveal that cultivating adolescents’ positive trait of awe may relieve their later perceived stress and promote their healthy development. Adopting positive trait training methods, such as counting blessings in gratitude interventions (Emmons & McCullough, 2003), may help to cultivate dispositional awe, which we will subsequently discuss in greater detail.

Second, the present study found that perceived stress might predict subsequent dispositional awe, addressing the gap in this field. Previous studies have focused on the effect of awe on stress, neglecting the possible shaping effect of stress on awe. This study found that perceived stress might hinder the promotion of future dispositional awe. The result is consistent with existing studies of stress that have found when facing stressful events individuals with high levels of perceived stress may pay more attention to those events (e.g., Sandi, 2013; Williams et al., 1996), which can lead to rumination (in both Western adolescents and Chinese adult drug users) (L. Liu & Cao, 2022; Michl et al., 2013), and in turn can prevent individuals from paying attention to external stimuli and hinder the generation of self-transcendental emotions such as awe. Additionally, this result is consistent with the broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 2001), which holds that the failure to effectively resolve stress (represented as higher levels of perceived stress) may hinder the generation of subsequent positive emotions.

Third, the results of the present study also provide suggestions for the management of adolescents’ stress and mental health in China. For example, educational psychologists can provide strategies to reduce teenagers’ perceived stress and improve their mental health by cultivating the positive trait of awe. Researchers found that U.S. adolescent participants who experienced awe during a white-water rafting trip reported significantly lower levels of stress than the levels recorded at baseline before the rafting experience (Anderson et al., 2018). The findings suggest that a short period of experiencing awe may reduce one’s stress perception. Existing results in gratitude cultivation, such as counting blessings (Emmons & McCullough, 2003), gratitude visits (Seligman et al., 2005), and “Three good things in life” (Killen & Macaskill, 2015), show that systematic gratitude intervention may improve one’s state and trait gratitude. Accordingly, a period of systematic awe training may also increase one’s levels of dispositional awe over time, improving their propensity to feel awe. In addition, some possible methods to increase one’s sensitivity to feeling awe in daily life have been mentioned in Schneider’s (2009) work, Awakening to Awe, including being open-minded to the ongoing experience, valuing deeply moving experiences, and appreciating everyday experiences in the context of the universe. These methods can be used as references to develop systematic programs of awe intervention to improve awe and relieve stress.

Limitations and Future Direction

The present study explored the reciprocal relation in which dispositional awe and perceived stress obstruct each other over time in a mutual manner. However, some limitations remain. First, this study used non-random convenience sampling and only examined Chinese adolescents. Therefore, generalization of the results should be made with caution, and the findings should be further verified in other samples, such as those from other countries or age groups. Second, this study adopted a two-wave cross-lagged design and used a relatively short time interval of three months. Further studies could sample three or more waves in a longer period to verify the relationship between awe and perceived stress. Third, the results of the present study imply a reciprocal link between dispositional awe and perceived stress in Chinese adolescents. However, the results of the cross-lagged models can only speculate on possible causality between variables, which cannot exclude the possibility of being confounded by other variables (e.g. Lucas, 2022). Thus, further studies should confirm the results for rigorous causality using experimental design, especially for the possible influence of perceived stress on later awe.

Conclusion

The current study explored the relationship between awe and perceived stress in Chinese adolescents using a cross-lagged design. The results show that awe predicts lower levels of perceived stress in Chinese adolescents over time and that perceived stress predicts lower levels of awe in the same sample, supporting the idea of a reciprocal link between awe and perceived stress in Chinese adolescents.

The results of the present study extend our understanding of the stress perceived by Chinese adolescents from the perspective of awe; promoting dispositional awe may relieve their later perceived stress. Additionally, the results address a neglected topic in the field of positive psychology that perceived stress may have a shaping effect on dispositional awe.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the Planning Project for the 14th Five-year Plan of the Shaanxi Provincial Education Science “Research on the influence of awe on mental health and the promotion of it in college students” (Grant No. SGH21Q018).

Ethical Considerations

All procedures performed in this study were in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and with the ethical standards of the ethics committee from the corresponding author’s university.

ORCID iDs

Yongquan Huo

Jia Liu

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Author Biographies

Jing Wang is a doctoral candidate in School of Psychology at Shaanxi Normal University. Her main research interests are pro-environmental behavior and social adaptation.

Yongquan Huo is a professor of psychology at Shaanxi Normal University. His work focuses on the positive psychology, theoretical psychology, and Chinese psychology.

Jia Liu is a postdoctoral fellow in psychology at Shaanxi Normal University, where she works with Yongquan Huo’s psychology research team. Her research focuses on emotions and social functioning among adolescents and emerging adults.

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