Resident Attitudes to Tourism and Their Effect on Subjective Well-Being

Abstract

Subjective well-being in host–guest relations has only been considered from the viewpoint of the guest. This study addresses the host perspective and assesses the association between perceived tourism impacts and residents’ subjective well-being in a mass tourism destination. Findings indicate that perceived tourism impacts are associated with life satisfaction, the cognitive component, and not with hedonic level of affect, the affective component. The life domains of health, interpersonal relationships, friends, and services and infrastructure, in particular, are positively affected.

Keywords

affect emotions happiness tourism impacts quality of life

Introduction

Subjective Well-Being

Happiness is a highly valued matter. Individuals are interested in happiness and although they do not always make the best choices in allocating their time and money (Frank 2004), most people strive to become happier. The word happiness is used in different meanings. In classic philosophy, it is typically used as an umbrella term for various aspects of the good life. Social scientists increasingly use the word “happiness” as a synonym for subjective enjoyment of life. Psychologists formally refer to this construct as subjective well-being (SWB), while economists term it “experienced utility” (Kahneman 2003; Kahneman, Wakker, and Sarin 1997).

Filep and Deery (2010) rightfully point out that the terms SWB, quality of life (QOL), life satisfaction, and happiness can be interpreted in several ways. They address the distinction between hedonic and eudaemonic happiness. The former concerns pleasure derived from certain activities (e.g., a holiday trip), while the latter concerns meaning in life. A life rich in meaning incorporates hedonic aspects of pleasure, but combines it with a search for outcomes such as self-actualization, transcendence, engagement, personal growth, and life goals (cf. King, Richards, and Stemmerich 1998; Seligman 2002; Sheldon et al. 2002). The eudaemonic interpretation is generally referred to as psychological well-being (PWB), whereas the hedonic interpretation is referred to as SWB (Sanjuán 2011).

The different meanings of QOL can be explicated out with the help of two classifications, which are discussed in more detail in Veenhoven (2000, 2010). Veenhoven distinguishes between “life chances” and “life results,” versus “outer” and “inner” qualities. This distinction can also be found in biology, system theory, and economics. Veenhoven concludes that SWB is best measured by focusing on inner qualities and life results.

Happiness research has received criticism by several scholars arguing that studying happiness is futile. These scholars view happiness as culturally determined or as a stable outcome of heredity (Lykken and Tellegen 1996) and adaptation effects (Brickman and Campbell 1971). However, several studies have shown that the notion of happiness as being completely “set” is false (Diener and Lucas 2006; Headey 2008, 2010; Veenhoven 1994, 2010b, 2010d). Furthermore, cultural differences in happiness levels exist (Diener, Oishi, and Lucas 2003; Oishi et al. 1999) but explain only a small percentage of the variation in happiness across various cultural groups (Veenhoven 2008a).

Empirical studies have been performed mostly within affluent societies, although cross-cultural investigations of SWB do exist (Oishi et al. 1999). Generally speaking, approximately 50% of an individual’s SWB is predetermined through heredity at a level called the set point (Larsen and Buss 2002). Another 10% is determined by life events, and 40% is affected by intentional activity (Lyubomirksy, Sheldon, and Schkade 2005). For individuals, tourism falls within the 40% of the SWB spectrum that is affected by intentional activity.

In assessing SWB, researchers usually draw on two sources of information: how well we feel most of the time and the extent to which we get what we want out of life. These subappraisals are commonly denoted as “components” of SWB and named respectively hedonic level of affect (affective component) (Veenhoven 2009) and life satisfaction (cognitive component) (Diener and Seligman 2002).

From a theoretical viewpoint, SWB is regarded as a reflection of how we generally feel and an indicator of whether certain needs are gratified (cf. Diener and Lucas 2000; Maslow 1943; Veenhoven 2009). People are presumed to be happier in good living conditions, compared to bad living conditions, even if they know that others are better off (Veenhoven and Ehrhardt 1995).

Happiness and Tourism

The number of publications on the relation between tourist behavior and SWB has increased rapidly in the last two years. Whereas only a few studies had appeared in academic journals until the mid-2000s (Gilbert and Abdullah 2002, 2004; Hoopes and Lounsbury 1989; Lounsbury and Hoopes 1986; Milman 1998; Steyn, Saayman, and Nienaber 2004), a large number of journal papers were published recently (Corvo 2010; De Bloom et al. 2010; De Bloom et al. 2009; Filep and Deery 2010; McCabe 2010; Michalkó et al. 2009; Nawijn 2010, 2011a, 2011b; Nawijn et al. 2010; Nawijn and Peeters 2010; Pearce 2009; Sirgy 2010; Sirgy et al. 2011). Furthermore, three doctoral dissertations (Filep 2009; Hagger 2009; Mitas 2010) have also addressed the impact that holidays have on the well-being of tourists. The general consensus seems to be that tourists benefit from vacationing, but positive effects disappear rather quickly (De Bloom et al. 2010; Nawijn et al. 2010).

The local population has received much less attention. As far as the authors are aware, two studies have assessed the SWB of tourism service providers (Becchetti, Castriota, and Solferino 2011; Nielsen, Paritski, and Smyth 2010), but not a single study has analyzed the impact of tourism on the SWB of the local population. However, indicators of life satisfaction have been part of multi-item scales in studies on residents’ QOL (Andereck and Nyaupane 2011; Cecil et al. 2010; Puckó and Smith 2011). Furthermore, Pearce, Filep, and Ross (2010) addressed the component of life satisfaction in relation to residents living in a tourist area. They argued that residents who are dependent on the tourism industry acquire a sense of security and hope for the future, which may have founded a sense of contentment. This sense of contentment is related to the cognitive component of SWB (Veenhoven 1984).

The lack of academic interest in the SWB of locals is unfortunate. Tourism academics have elaborately studied host impacts at various destinations, such as Colombia (Belisle and Hoy 1980), Australia (Gursoy, Chi, and Dyer 2010), Greece (Haralambopoulos and Pizam 1996), Florida (Milman and Pizam 1988), North Wales (Sheldon and Var 1984), Iran (Aref 2010), Waikiki (Sheldon and Abenoja 2001), and Riga (Upchurch and Teivane 2000) to name only a few. The lack of interest in locals’ SWB may be caused by the fact that the field of happiness studies is dominated by psychologists whose studies mostly address individual variation in levels of happiness (Baker and Stauth 2003; Diener and Diener 1996; Diener and Seligman 2002; Myers and Diener 1995) and what one can do to become even more happy (Lyubomirksy 2008; Lyubomirksy, Sheldon, and Schkade 2005; Sheldon and Lyubomirksy 2006). The effects of macro-level social processes such as tourism development on happiness have therefore escaped psychologists’ attention. As a consequence, little is known about the influence of external factors, such as one’s living environment, on individuals’ SWB. This lack of knowledge led Florida (2008) to conclude that “place is the missing link in happiness studies” (Florida 2008, p. 136). Our study addresses one of the aspects of “place”—the presence of tourism—and its effect on residents’ SWB.

Resident Attitudes and Perceived Tourism Impacts

Studies on the perceived impact of tourism distinguish between socioeconomic, cultural, environmental, and overall QOL impacts. In general, tourism development has positive perceived economic impacts, but negative environmental and cultural impacts (Dickinson and Lumsdon 2010). Conceptually, resident attitudes toward tourism development are often explained from a social exchange theory perspective (Ap and Crompton 1993; Pearce, Moscardo, and Ross 1996; Perdue, Long, and Allen 1990; Sirakaya, Teye, and Sönmez 2002). Resident attitude toward tourism development appears to depend on the perception of perceived benefits and costs (Sirakaya, Teye, and Sönmez 2002). However, it is doubtful that such perceptions are accurate predictors of how people would feel once the tourism industry has arrived and a destination moves from one phase of development to another (Butler 1980; Kahneman, Wakker, and Sarin 1997). For this reason, a recent study linked QOL indicators to perceptions of tourism among residents (Andereck and Nyaupane 2011). Even though the study by Andereck and Nyaupane included well-being–related items, such as “my life quality,” their well-being items addressed the “way of life” of the respondent rather than how the respondents felt or how satisfied they were with their lives. Thus, our study goes beyond their QOL approach and links resident attitudes to SWB.

The importance of studying the impact that tourism has on residents’ SWB is threefold. First, it identifies the most salient aspects of residents’ SWB in relation to perceived tourism impacts. Second, it is in the interest of the tourism industry, as happiness precedes fulfilling and productive work (Lyubomirksy and King 2005). Finally, it has potential benefits for the residents. Happy people live longer (Danner, Snowdon, and Friesen 2001), have more satisfying relationships (Lyubomirksy and King 2005), and are in better health as happiness protects against becoming ill (Veenhoven 2008).

Mallorca

The present study deals with the island of Mallorca. Mallorca is the largest of the Balearic islands, which have been a mass tourism destination since the 1960s. Mallorca reached the maturity phase of tourism development (Butler 1980) in the early 1990s. The island is home to approximately 860,000 people. Tourism is a major source of income for residents of the island (Ministry of Economy and Treasury Directorate-General of Economy 2010; Salvà-Tomàs 2002). Many residents are employed in the tourism industry (Bull 1997). Mallorca offers a wide variety of tourism products, such as health tourism, nautical tourism, rural tourism, cultural tourism, events, and conventions. The Balearic islands combined recorded more than 10 million international tourist arrivals in 2008 (Ministry of Economy and Treasury Directorate-General of Economy 2010), with the vast majority vacationing in Mallorca. Our study focuses on the capital, Palma de Mallorca. Palma de Mallorca is home to 420,000 people (50% of Mallorca’s residents) and recorded between 1.3 and 2.3 million annual visitors from 2005 to 2010. Most international visitors originate from Germany, the United Kingdom, or Scandinavia (Mallorca Convention Bureau 2011).

Purpose of the Study

The reviewed research literature leaves several questions unanswered. This study adds to the existing literature on SWB by assessing whether a constantly present external factor (tourism) has an impact on an individual’s SWB. Similarly, it adds to the literature on SWB and tourism by assessing whether tourism affects residents’ SWB differently from tourists’ SWB. We will answer the following research questions: (1) Do perceived tourism impacts affect residents’ SWB? (2) Which component(s) of SWB is/are affected? (3) Which resident attitude(s) is/are related to SWB? (4) How much of the variance in SWB is explained by perceived tourism impacts?

Method

Respondents

We used a sample of citizens of Palma de Mallorca (n = 373) who were randomly approached on the streets or at their homes on various days of the week. The interviewers adopted a random walk method, which is considered a type of random sampling. Each day of data collection, a random starting point was chosen and from there, the interviewers took the second street on the left and approached every second house on the left. If there was no left street to go into anymore, the researcher would go back to the starting street, move north two streets and continue their data collection procedure. The respondents were briefly introduced to the content of the study and were kindly asked for their (anonymous) participation. While random walk sampling is perhaps not ideal, it is appropriate to the novelty of the research topic, and in line with other studies of resident attitudes toward tourism, which used similar types of sampling (cf. Sirakaya, Teye, and Sönmez 2002; Upchurch and Teivane 2000). Men made up 41% of the sample. Most respondents were between 21 and 30 years old (27%). Sixty-nine percent held a full-time or part-time job, 25% were students and/or unemployed, and 6% were retired. Thirty-three percent of the respondents held a job that was directly related to the tourism industry. Respondents filled out a self-report questionnaire in situ, the contents of which are discussed in the following section. Translation of SWB items has not caused insuperable problems (Layard 2005). Therefore, we used a two-translator procedure. The questionnaire was translated from English into Spanish independently by two native speakers. Any differences between the two resulting translations were subsequently resolved to the satisfaction of both translators.

Variables

We started the questionnaire with the SWB items to prevent potential exaggeration of the effect of independent variables (Kahneman et al. 2006). Both the affective and cognitive dimensions of SWB were assessed. Respondents were asked to what extent they generally experience certain emotions and how satisfied they generally are with their lives. Life satisfaction was included as an indicator of the cognitive component of SWB and measured on a scale from 1 to 10 by using the self-anchoring scale, also known as Cantril’s ladder (Cantril 1965). The self-anchoring scale is a single-item scale, which is deemed a valid way to measure cognitive aspects of SWB (Abdel-Khalek 2006). Life satisfaction was also measured on 10 specific domains: friends, family, interpersonal relationships, economic situation, job, neighborhood, self, services and infrastructure, health, and politics (all on a 10-point scale). These domains were based on the domains used by Gilbert and Abdullah (2004) and are intended to deepen and broaden the picture of life satisfaction obtained with a single global item. Affect was measured using positive and negative affect subscales developed and validated by Kahneman et al. (2004) and Fredrickson (2009). The positive affect subscale consisted of three emotions: happiness, serenity, and enjoyment. The negative affect subscale was made up of five emotions, namely, frustrated/annoyed, depressed/blue, angry/hostile, worried, and anxious. Respondents were asked to rate each emotion on a 7-point scale. Afterwards, hedonic level of affect was constructed by calculating average positive affect and average negative affect for each respondent and subsequently subtracting the latter from the former. The possible range of the resulting scale is −6 (average positive 1, negative 7) to +6 (average positive 7, negative 1).

Questions about resident attitudes were included to assess whether there is a link between tourism and residents’ SWB. Fourteen statements representing attitudes toward tourism were adapted from Brunt and Courtney (1999) and Diedrich and García-Buades (2008). Respondents were asked to respond to each statement on a 7-point Likert-type scale. Each item was treated as a separate independent variable in analysis. Cronbach’s alpha of the attitude scale was 0.83, which demonstrates good internal reliability (Cronbach 1951; Nunnally 1978). We decided to assess the impact of each attitude variable individually to uncover which aspects of resident attitude are associated with SWB (second and third research questions).

We also asked participants how long they had lived in Mallorca and whether they held a job in the tourism industry. According to Nunkoo and Ramkissoon (2010), length of residence (Liu and Var 1986; Um and Crompton 1987) and economic dependence on tourism (Ap 1990; Brunt and Courtney 1999; Caneday and Zeiger 1991; Deccio and Baloglu 2002; Haralambopoulos and Pizam 1996; Jurowski, Uysal, and Williams 1997; Lankford and Howard 1994; Liu, Sheldon, and Var 1987; Madrigal 1995; Sirakaya, Teye, and Sönmez 2002) are both determinants of residents’ attitudes toward tourism. We included these variables as covariates in our analyses to assess how much of the variance in SWB is explained by attitudes (Fourth research question). The covariates eliminated potential “third variable effects,” which may have otherwise overstated the effect of attitudes on SWB. Sociodemographics, including gender, age, employment status, educational level, and monthly income, were also used as covariates.

Results

Resident Attitudes and SWB

The residents of Palma de Mallorca that we sampled are fairly happy. Average positive affect is higher than negative affect, and most respondents are satisfied with their lives in general; 74% scored a 6 or higher. Tables 1 and 2 display the mean scores and standard deviations for both happiness dimensions and the resident attitudes. Palma de Mallorca residents are fairly satisfied with the different life domains. Only politics stands out with a rather low mean score. The residents’ perceived impacts of tourism and their mean scores indicate that residents generally perceive tourism to have positive impacts. Furthermore, the attitudes that residents hold toward tourism relate to SWB in a mostly positive way (see Tables 3 and 4).

Table 1.

Mean Scores for Components

Component	M	SD
Life satisfaction	6.64	1.77
Hedonic level of affect	1.78	1.81
Friends	8.54	1.60
Family	7.87	2.10
Interpersonal relationships	7.59	1.82
Economic situation	6.31	2.22
Job	6.15	2.58
Neighborhood	6.89	2.40
Self	8.21	1.92
Services and infrastructure	7.80	1.92
Health	8.54	1.81
Politics	3.88	2.53

Note: All items were measured on a 10-point scale, except Hedonic level of affect—see Methodology.

Table 2.

Mean Scores for Statements

Statement	M	SD
Tourism brings opportunities for local people	5.64	1.52
Tourism positively influences community life	5.87	1.41
The island of Mallorca has improved thanks to the tourism industry	5.43	1.64
Locals see the relation between locals and tourists as something positive	5.42	1.42
There are more jobs for locals	5.71	1.53
There are more jobs for non-Majorcans	5.66	1.50
There are more jobs for women	5.50	1.55
More non-Majorcans have moved here	6.12	1.20
More people from other parts of Mallorca have moved here	5.45	1.57
We have more pride in our traditional culture	5.24	1.68
People want more possessions	6.04	1.15
There has been an increase in criminal behavior	5.33	1.56
Overall quality of life has improved	4.89	1.81
Tourism contributes to the preservation of old buildings	4.82	1.83

Note: All statements were scored on a 7-point scale.

Table 3.

Zero Order Correlations for Domain Satisfactions

Statements	Friends	Family	Interpersonal Relationships	Economic Situation	Job	Neighborhood	Self	Services and Infrastructure	Health	Politics
Tourism brings opportunities for local people	.13*	.17**	.21**	.08	.10	.01	.11*	.20**	.14**	−.05
Tourism positively influences community life	.18**	.20**	.18**	.01	.12*	.06	.14**	.16**	.13*	−.06
The island of Mallorca has improved thanks to the tourism industry	.09	.11*	.10	.03	.08	.05	.01	.17**	.12*	.02
Locals see the relation between locals and tourists as something positive	.07	.16**	.05	.03	.05	.15**	.12*	.20**	.09	−.06
There are more jobs for locals	.06	.16**	.07	.14**	.17**	.05	.05	.13*	.12*	−.04
There are more jobs for non-Majorcans	.10	.18**	.07	.07	.11*	.17**	.11*	.21**	.07	−.04
There are more jobs for women	.08	.18**	.06	.05	.10	.06	.08	.13*	.07	−.04
More non-Majorcans have moved here	.19**	.20**	.11**	−.03	.05	.17**	.20**	.16**	.19**	−.05
More people from other parts of Mallorca have moved here	.16**	.08	.09	−.02	.08	.03	.04	.07	.07	−.09
We have more pride in our traditional culture	.18**	.10	.13*	−.02	.08	.14**	.09	.15**	.04	−.03
People want more possessions	.22**	.18**	.13*	−.15**	.00	.03	.17**	.12*	.23**	−.15*
There has been an increase in criminal behavior	.06	.14**	.02	.01	.02	.07	.01	.05	.01	−.08
Overall quality of life has improved	.11**	.11*	.11*	.16**	.17**	.08	.03	.13*	.11*	.12*
Tourism contributes to the preservation of old buildings	.09	.01	.02	.04	.14**	.12*	.03	.15**	.14**	.09

p < .05; **p < .01.

Table 4.

Zero-Order Correlations for Hedonic Level of Affect and Life Satisfaction

Statements	Hedonic Level of Affect	Life Satisfaction
Tourism brings opportunities for local people	.10	.23**
Tourism positively influences community life	.08	.12*
The island of Mallorca has improved thanks to the tourism industry	.05	.11*
Locals see the relation between locals and tourists as something positive	.03	.03
There are more jobs for locals	.11*	.15**
There are more jobs for non-Majorcans	.10	.11*
There are more jobs for women	.03	.10*
More non-Majorcans have moved here	.09	.08
More people from other parts of Mallorca have moved here	−.02	.03
We have more pride in our traditional culture	.02	.07
People want more possessions	.06	.07
There has been an increase in criminal behavior	−.01	.04
Overall quality of life has improved	.05	.27**
Tourism contributes to the preservation of old buildings	.00	.16**

p < .05; **p < .01.

Components of SWB

To assess the association between perceived tourism impacts and both SWB dimensions (the life satisfaction dimension as well as the hedonic level of affect dimension), we performed 12 hierarchical multiple regression analyses in which the sociodemographics and the questions about years of residency and whether respondents held a tourism-related job were used as covariates. Hierarchical multiple regression allows for statistical control for the effects of variables entered at step 1 (presented as Model 1). The other independent variables, comprising the items measuring resident attitudes toward tourism, are entered at step 2 (presented as Model 2). The possible effects of the control variables are removed and the final model shows what is still explained by the variables entered at step 2. Preliminary analyses were conducted to ensure no violation of the assumptions of normality, linearity, multicollinearity, and homoscedasticity. We found that the independent variables showed some correlation with the dependent variable, but not strongly with each other, which indicates that multicollinearity assumptions were not violated. To assess normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity, we analyzed the normal probability plot of the regression standardized residual and the scatterplot of the standardized residuals. We found a reasonably straight diagonal line. In the scatterplot we did not find a clear or systematic pattern to the residuals either, suggesting no major deviations from normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity. All nominal-level variables were included as dummy variables. The dependent variables were the two components of SWB: life satisfaction (including all 10 life domains) and hedonic level of affect.

The model as a whole explains 47.7% of the variance in life satisfaction. After the effects of the covariates are removed, perceived tourism impacts explain 9.1% of the variance in life satisfaction (see Table 5). The model as a whole is significant, F(25, 274) = 7.350, p < .0005.

Table 5.

Hierarchical Multiple Regression—Model Summary

Model	R	R ²	R² Change	F Change	df ₁	df ₂	Significant F Change
1	.326	.106	.106	3.117	11	288	.001
2	.444	.197	.091	2.214	14	274	.008

Life Domains

Table 6 displays the model summaries of the multiple regressions analyses for all 10 life domains. Tourism significantly affects satisfaction with the life domains of friends (10.9%), F(25, 274) = 2.252, p < .005; interpersonal relationships (8.2%), F(25, 274) = 1.595, p < .01; services and infrastructure (10.1%), F(25, 274) = 1.858, p < .01; and health (11%), F(25, 274) = 2.319, p < .005. The other domain models are not significant as a whole.

Table 6.

Hierarchical Multiple Regression—Model Summaries

Domain	Model	R	R ²	R² Change	F Change	df ₁	df ₂	Significant F Change
Friends	1	.248	.062	.062	1.716	11	288	0.069
	2	.413	.170	.109	2.570	14	274	0.002
Family	1	.313	.098	.098	2.848	11	288	0.001
	2	.405	.164	.066	1.548	14	274	0.094
Interpersonal relationships	1	.213	.045	.045	1.243	11	288	0.258
	2	.356	.127	.082	1.832	14	274	0.034
Economic situation	1	.252	.064	.064	1.778	11	288	0.057
	2	.361	.131	.067	1.507	14	274	0.108
Job	1	.420	.177	.177	5.624	11	288	0.000
	2	.471	.221	.045	1.123	14	274	0.337
Neighborhood	1	.137	.019	.019	0.504	11	288	0.900
	2	.308	.095	.076	1.646	14	274	0.067
Self	1	.099	.010	.010	0.260	11	288	0.992
	2	.294	.087	.077	1.643	14	274	0.068
Services and infrastructure	1	.209	.044	.044	1.198	11	288	0.288
	2	.381	.145	.101	2.316	14	274	0.005
Health	1	.254	.064	.064	1.804	11	288	0.053
	2	.418	.175	.110	2.612	14	274	0.001
Politics	1	.287	.082	.082	2.351	11	288	0.009
	2	.363	.132	.049	1.114	14	274	0.345

In models predicting overall life satisfaction, each statement of attitudes toward tourism was retained as an independent variable. Table 7 only shows those statements that had significant effects on life satisfaction. Note that the effects are generally positive—the more positive participants felt about tourism development, the happier they were with their lives. The statements in Table 7 address mostly economic benefits, general QOL, and positive influences of migration.

Table 7.

Statements with Significant Impacts

Statements	Beta	Significance	Dependent Variable
Overall quality of life has improved	+.19	.01	Life satisfaction
People want more possessions	+.15	.05	Friends
Tourism brings opportunities for local people	+.15	.05	Interpersonal relationships
Tourism brings opportunities for local people	+.17	.05	Services and infrastructure
There are more jobs for non-Majorcans	+.17	.05	Services and infrastructure
More non-Majorcans have moved here	+.17	.05	Health
People want more possessions	+.22	.01	Health

Note: Reported betas are standardized.

The variance in hedonic level of affect is explained for 27.9% by the model as a whole. After the effects of the covariates are removed, perceived tourism impacts explain 2.7% of the variance in hedonic level of affect (see Table 8). However, the model as a whole is not statistically significant, F(25, 274) = 3.06, p = .569.

Table 8.

Hierarchical Multiple Regression—Model Summary

Model	R	R ²	R² Change	F Change	df ₁	df ₂	Significant F Change
1	.226	.051	.051	1.404	11	288	.170
2	.279	.078	.027	0.574	14	274	.884

Conclusion and Discussion

The purpose of this study was to analyze the association between perceived tourism impacts and residents’ SWB. We find that the Palma de Mallorca residents in our sample are fairly happy and that tourism impacts are associated with the cognitive component of SWB, life satisfaction, rather than the affective component. Tourism in Palma de Mallorca is embedded within the everyday life of the host community. The affective component of SWB is more dependent on daily happenings and less influenced by aspects of life that are constantly present (Baumeister et al. 2007). We argue that this is the reason that perceived tourism impacts are related to the cognitive, but not the affective, component of SWB. The life domains of health, interpersonal relationships, friends, and services and infrastructure are affected in particular; reflecting mostly economic benefits linked to migration and general QOL. This is similar to how tourism affects tourists’ life domains, which affects health (cf. De Bloom et al. 2009, 2010) and interpersonal relationships, friends and services as well (Gilbert and Abdullah 2004). However, the impact on tourists’ life domains is generally short-lived (De Bloom et al. 2010), whereas the effects on the host community is argued to have a more permanent effect as the tourism industry is present on a daily basis throughout the year for the residents of the destination.

Previous studies on SWB and tourism addressed the perspective of the tourist only. These studies found that tourism affects mostly hedonic level of affect as opposed to life satisfaction (cf. Mitas 2010; Nawijn et al. 2010). Our study adds to the existing literature on SWB and tourism by assessing the effect on residents and by demonstrating that the host community is affected primarily in terms of life satisfaction. Thus, tourism, from the guest’s point of view, is strongly associated with the component of hedonic level of affect, whereas, from the host’s point of view, it affects life satisfaction.

Perceived tourism impacts explain approximately 9% of the variance in life satisfaction. As described earlier, SWB is dependent on many things, with about half of the variance in SWB being “set” through heredity, 10% is affected by life events, and the remaining 40% consists of freely chosen activities and certain external factors (Lyubomirksy, Sheldon, and Schkade 2005). From the plethora of possible activities and circumstances that affect individuals’ SWB, it is not surprising that perceived impacts of inbound tourism explains a relatively small part of the total variance in SWB. Interestingly, previous research on SWB has consistently found that about 10% of individual variation in SWB is attributable to a person’s life circumstances (Lyubomirksy, Sheldon, and Schkade 2005). In this light, the finding that attitudes toward tourism development explain 9% of variation in a component of SWB—life satisfaction—is actually quite compelling. Tourism development in one’s home community affects a breadth of circumstances, including income, crowding, work stress and seasonal changes (cf. Pearce, Filep, and Ross 2010; Ross 1992). Our findings show that the effects of tourism, possibly through these circumstances, affect a portion of local residents’ well-being. We argue that this portion is substantial given the numerous aspects that affect SWB.

Implications

This study has several implications. We addressed the importance of studying SWB in tourism host communities in the Introduction section. The findings of the present study indicate that perceived tourism impacts are associated with SWB, in particular the component of life satisfaction. More specifically, the life domains of health, interpersonal relationships, friends, and services and infrastructure are connected to tourism impacts, which suggests that tourism could be used to boost individuals’ happiness, not only from the guest perspective, as numerous other studies have shown, but also from the host perspective. This provides further support for the notion of using SWB as a government policy goal (cf. Layard 2005; Veenhoven 2010). Additionally, as happiness precedes fulfilling and productive work (Lyubomirksy and King 2005), the findings of our study imply that tourism development may lead to sustained gains in SWB, which in turn could lead to more productive workers, who are satisfied with their jobs. This would consequently benefit the tourism industry. Finally, as happiness serves as a buffer to illnesses, developing tourism in a particular area or community could better the local population’s well-being in terms of health. Our findings on the life domain of health further support this line of reasoning.

Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research

The present study is not without limitations. One limitation is that this study addressed perceived sociocultural, economic, and overall QOL impacts. In line with earlier studies, future studies should also examine perceived environmental impacts (Liu, Sheldon, and Var 1987; Yoon, Gursoy, and Chen 2001).

Also, the sampling method we used is not ideal. Future studies could involve a more representative type of sampling, such as a simple random sample, which makes use of a list of people in the population from which a sample is drawn. In addition, future studies on tourism, place, and happiness should include the spatial factor. Recent research found that those living further from the tourist area report higher overall QOL scores (Chancellor, Yu, and Cole 2010).

Furthermore, the cause–effect relation between resident attitudes and SWB requires further investigation. Like most resident attitude studies (e.g., Sirakaya, Teye, and Sönmez 2002; Um and Crompton 1987), this study is a cross-sectional study and therefore we are not able to distinguish cause from effect. Longitudinal studies are required to be able to do so. These types of studies are also necessary to verify our claim that the effect of tourism on the host community has a longer-lasting effect for the residents of the destination than it does for tourists.

Residents’ attitudes are associated with the development stage of the tourist destination involved (Butler 1980; Yoon, Gursoy, and Chen 2001). According to Butler (1980), resident support for tourism development diminishes as a destination moves into a later stage of development. Mallorca, however, is a mature destination, and we found that the residents of Palma de Mallorca generally hold positive attitudes toward tourism. This finding confirms a previous study by Sheldon and Abenoja (2001), who found that residents at a mature destination have mostly positive attitudes toward tourism. Future research should study tourism destinations in different stages of development and destinations that are less dependent on tourism economically and/or have different seasonal fluctuations in tourism arrivals to complete the picture of relationships among development stages and resident attitudes to tourism.

Communities consist of diverse groups of people. Effects of tourism development and seasonality may be different for different types of people (Butler 1998). Future research should address these potential different effects.

Finally, in relation to the two previous points, we consider the possibility that a selective migration effect may have occurred in Mallorca. During the 1996-2008 period, the Balearic islands saw the highest increase in population in Spain (41%), which is more than double the Spanish average (Ministry of Economy and Treasury, Directorate-General of Economy 2010). Selective migration entails that geographical differences in personality could emerge and persist over time (Rentfrow, Gosling, and Potter 2008). The entrance of new workers into Mallorca may have affected residents’ SWB, which is linked to personality (Diener et al. 1992; Pavot, Diener, and Fujita 1990). However, a recent study found that cultural differences between Spanish natives and immigrants to Spain, and the effects of these differences on well-being, are very small (Bobowik et al. 2011). Future research should explore this matter further.

Conclusion

This study assessed the effects of perceived tourism impacts on residents’ SWB in Palma de Mallorca. We found that tourism affects the cognitive component of SWB, life satisfaction. Approximately 9% of the variance in residents’ life satisfaction is explained by tourism impacts. Residents’ life satisfaction in the domains of health, interpersonal relationships, friends, and services and infrastructure are affected in particular. These domains reflect mostly economic benefits linked to migration and general QOL. The presented study adds to the existing literature on SWB and tourism by finding that tourism, from the host’s viewpoint, affects the cognitive component of SWB rather than the affective component. This pattern is complementary to the effects of tourism on the SWB of tourists themselves.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article.

Bios

Jeroen Nawijn is a Senior lecturer in Tourism at NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences. He specializes in tourist experiences, with a focus on the psychological aspects of consumption behavior. His main research interests are: subjective well-being, positive psychology, sustainable tourism and quality of life.

Ondrej Mitas is a lecturer at NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences. His research interests include the visual experience of tourism, positive psychology of leisure, and the role of tourism in well-being. He developed his interests during his bachelor’s and master’s study experiences at North Carolina State University, as well as a lifetime of trans-Atlantic travel. He earned his PhD in Leisure Studies from Penn State University in 2010.

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