Impacts of Gender,Patriarchy,and Culture on Bruneian Women’s Travel Experiences

Abstract

Limited research has examined the travel experiences of Asian women living in patriarchal societies. This study explores the interrelationships between gender, patriarchy, culture, and the travel experiences of women in Brunei where Islam plays a central role religiously and culturally. Intersectionality served as a guiding theoretical framework. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 49 girls and women aged 18 to 64. Findings show that Bruneian men tend to be viewed as breadwinners, providers, protectors, decision makers, and leaders, while women are homemakers, housewives, cooks, care givers, and helpers. Interviewees said they encounter more restrictions than men in terms of travelling for leisure. These are of socio-cultural, religious, and gender-related nature, which cumulatively affect women’s holiday choices. While travelling abroad, their multiple identities (female, Muslim, Asian/Malay) often intersect, shaping how they are judged and treated in different cultural contexts. Implications are discussed for further research on gender and tourism.

Keywords

intersectionality Islamic tourism gender equality solo female tourists Brunei

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Adib

Guerrier

(2003). The interlocking of gender with nationality, race, ethnicity and class: The narratives of women in hotel work. Gender Work and Organization, 10(4), 413–432. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0432.00204

Adler

P. A.

Adler

P. H.

(2004). Paradise labourers: Hotel work in the Global Economy. Cornell University Press.

Ahmad

(2019). Policy implications for working women in Brunei. Japan Labor Issues, 3(17), 39–46.

Aitchison

(2001). Theorizing other discourses of tourism, gender and culture. Tourist Studies, 1(2), 133–147. https://doi.org/10.1177/146879760100100202

Aitchison

Reeves

(1998). Gendered (bed)spaces: The culture and commerce of women only tourism. In Aitchison

Jordan

(Eds.), Gender, space and identity. Leisure, culture and Commerce (pp. 47–68). Leisure Studies Association.

Alberti

Iannuzzi

F. E.

(2020). Embodied intersectionality and the intersectional management of hotel labour: The everyday experiences of social differentiation in customer-oriented work. Gender Work and Organization, 27, 1165–1180. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12454

Austen

(1817/1993). Persuasion. Wordsworth.

Bilge

(2013). Intersectionality undone: Saving intersectionality from feminist intersectionality studies. Du Bois Reviews, 10(2), 405–424. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742058X13000283

Bowleg

(2021). Evolving intersectionality within public health: From analysis to action. American Journal of Public Health, 111(1), 88–90. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.306031

10.

Braun

Clarke

(2019). Reflecting on reflexive thematic analysis. Qualitative Research in Sport Exercise and Health, 11(4), 589–597. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676x.2019.1628806

11.

Brown

Osman

(2017). The female tourist experience in Egypt as an Islamic destination. Annals of Tourism Research, 63, 12–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2016.12.005

12.

Chhabra

Andereck

Yamanoi

Plunkett

(2011). Gender equity and social marketing: An analysis of tourism advertisements. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 28(2), 111–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2011.545739

13.

Chhabra

Johnston

(2014). Dispelling gendered myths in tourism promotional materials: An upstream social marketing perspective. Tourism Analysis, 19, 775–780. https://doi.org/10.3727/108354214x14146846679646

14.

Chiang

C. Y.

Jogaratnam

(2006). Why do women travel solo for purposes of leisure? Journal of Vacation Marketing, 12(1), 59–70. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356766706059041

15.

Coaston

(2019). The intersectionality wars. Retrieved 15 April 2024, from https://www.vox.com/the-highlight/2019/5/20/18542843/intersectionality-conservatism-law-race-gender-discrimination.

16.

Crenshaw

(1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1989(1), 139–168.

17.

CrescentRating. (2023). Global Muslim Travel Index 2023. Retrieved 20 January 2024, from https://www.crescentrating.com/reports/global-muslim-travel-index-2023.html.

18.

J. W.

Creswell

J. D.

Creswell

(Eds.). (2023). Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches (6th ed.). Sage.

19.

Department of Economic Planning and Statistics (DEPS). (2001). Eight National Development Plan (2001–2005) Brunei Darussalam. BSB.

20.

Department of Economic Planning and Statistics (DEPS). (2022). Latest Highlights 2021. Retrieved 12 June 2022, from https://deps.mofe.gov.bn/SitePages/Population.aspx.

21.

Enloe

(1989). Bananas, beaches, and bases: Making feminist sense of International Politics. University of California Press.

22.

Esposito

Evans-Winters

(2022). Introduction to intersectional qualitative research. Sage.

23.

Gao

Kerstetter

D. L.

(2016). Using an intersectionality perspective to uncover older Chinese female’s perceived travel constraints and negotiation strategies. Tourism Management, 57, 128–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2016.06.001

24.

Greer

(1999). The whole woman. Anchor.

25.

Guan

Thomas

Vittinghoff

Bowleg

Mangurian

Wesson

(2021). An investigation of quantitative methods for assessing intersectionality in health research: A systematic review. SSM – Population Health, 16, 100977. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100977

26.

Henderson

K. A.

(1994). Broadening an understanding of women, gender, and leisure. Annals of Leisure Research, 26(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.1994.11969940

27.

Henderson

K. A.

Gibson

H. J.

(2013). An integrative review of women, gender, and leisure: Increasing complexities. Journal of Leisure Research, 45(2), 115–135. https://doi.org/10.18666/jlr-2013-v45-i2-3008

28.

Jablonka

(2023). A history of masculinity from patriarchy to Gender Justice. Penguin.

29.

Jordan

Aitchison

(2008). Tourism and the sexualisation of the gaze: Solo female tourists’ experiences of gendered power, surveillance and embodiment. Leisure Studies, 27(3), 329–349. https://doi.org/10.1080/02614360802125080

30.

Jordan

Gibson

(2005). “We'Re Not Stupid . . . But We'Ll Not Stay Home Either”: Experiences of Solo Women Travelers. Tourism Review International, 9(2), 195–211. https://doi.org/10.3727/154427205774791663

31.

Karagöz

Işık

Dogru

Zhang

(2021). Solo female travel risks, anxiety and travel intentions: Examining the moderating role of online psychological-social support. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(11), 1595–1612. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1816929

32.

Lahman

M. K. E.

(2025). An Introduction to qualitative research: Becoming culturally responsive. Sage.

33.

Lucena

Vorobjovas-Pinta

Cai

(2021). Introduction to gender and sexuality in tourism and hospitality. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 21(4), 426–432. https://doi.org/10.1177/14673584211052100

34.

Madkhali

Lugosi

Hawkins

(2024). Socio-cultural drivers of Saudi tourists’ outbound destination decisions. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 30(3), 582–598. https://doi.org/10.1177/13567667231152937

35.

McDowell

(2011). Working Bodies: Interactive Service Employment and Workplace Identities. Wiley.

36.

Ministry of Primary Resources and Tourism (MPRT). (2022). Brunei Tourism Performance Final Report. Retrieved 15 September 2023, from http://www.tourism.gov.bn.

37.

Mooney

(2018). Illuminating intersectionality for tourism researchers. Annals of Tourism Research, 72, 175–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2018.03.003

38.

Moufakkir

AlSaleh

(2017). A conceptual framework for studying recreational travel motivation from an Arab perspective. Tourism Recreation Research, 42(4), 522–536. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2017.1354496

39.

Nisha

Cheung

Sun Tung

V. W.

(2025). Intersectional marginalisation of female Muslim tourists. Tourism Management, 108, 105099. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2024.105099

40.

Osman

Brown

Phung

T. M. T.

(2020). The travel motivations and experiences of female Vietnamese solo travellers. Tourist Studies, 20(2), 248–267. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468797619878307

41.

Pritchard

Morgan

Ateljevic

Harris

(2007). Editors’ introduction: Tourism, gender, embodiment and experience. In Pritchard

Morgan

Ateljevic

Harris

(Eds.), Tourism and Gender: Embodiment, sensuality, and experience (pp. 1–12). CABI.

42.

Rice

Harrison

Friedman

(2019). Doing justice to intersectionality in research. Cultural Studie Critical Methodologies, 19(6), 409–420. https://doi.org/10.1177/1532708619829779

43.

Seow

Brown

(2018). The solo female Asian tourist. Current Issues in Tourism, 21(10), 1187–1206. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2017.1423283

44.

Swain

M. B.

(1995). Gender in tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 22(2), 247–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-7383(94)00095-6

45.

Swain

M. B.

Wilson

Yang

E. C. L.

Chambers

(2024). An intergenerational dialogue about gender in tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 104, 103706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2023.103706

46.

Tapia

Lee

T. L.

Filipovitch

(2017). Supra-union and intersectional organizing: An examination of two prominent cases in the low-wage US restaurant industry. Journal of Industrial Relations, 59(4), 487–509. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022185617714817

47.

Tetreault

M. K. T.

(1985). Feminist phase theory: An experience-derived evaluation model. Journal of Higher Education, 56, 363–384. https://doi.org/10.2307/1981301

48.

Truong

V. D.

Saunders

S. G.

Tkaczynski

Rundle-Thiele

(2024). Tourism and social marketing: An integrative review. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 32(12), 2698–2717. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2024.2309729

49.

Tsaur

Tzeng

Wang

(1997). Evaluating tourist risks from fuzzy perspectives. Annals of Travel Research, 24(4), 796–812. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(97)00059-5

50.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). (2003). UNESCO’s Gender Mainstreaming Implementation Framework (GMIF) for 2002-2007. UNESCO.

51.

Valentine

(1992). Images of danger: Women’s sources of information about the spatial distribution of male violence. Area, 24(1), 22–29.

52.

Walby

(1991). Theorising patriarchy. Basil Blackwell.

53.

Wilson

Little

D. E.

(2008). The solo female travel experience: Exploring the ‘geography of women’s fear. Current Issues in Tourism, 11(2), 167–186. https://doi.org/10.2167/cit342.0

54.

Winter

(2009). Asian tourism and the retreat of Anglo-western centrism in tourism theory. Current Issues in Tourism, 12(1), 21–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500802220695

55.

Woyo

Venganai

(Eds.). (2022). Gender, Disability and Tourism in Africa: Intersectional Perspectives. Springer Nature.

56.

Yang

E. C. L.

Khoo-Lattimore

Arcodia

(2018a). Power and empowerment: How Asian solo female travellers perceive and negotiate risks. Tourism Management, 68, 32–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.02.017

57.

Yang

E. C. L.

Khoo-Lattimore

Arcodia

(2018b). Constructing space and self through risk taking: A case of Asian solo female travelers. Journal of Travel Research, 57(2), 260–272. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287517692447

58.

Yang

E. C. L.

Khoo-Lattimore

Arcodia

(2017). A narrative review of Asian female travellers: Looking into the future through the past. Current Issues in Tourism, 20(10), 1008–1027. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2016.1208741

59.

Yusof

Azalie

(2025). Jawi and cultural heritage conservation: A case study of Brunei’s Yayasan Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Islamic Calligraphy and Arts Study Centre. In Truong

V. D.

Knight

D. W.

(Eds.), Heritage Tourism Vietnam and Asia (pp. 235–252). Springer.

60.

Zhang

Hitchcock

M. J.

(2017). The Chinese female tourist gaze: A netnography of young women’s blogs on Macao. Current Issues in Tourism, 20(3), 315–330. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2014.904845

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.06 MB