The Background of Physiological Psychology in Natural Philosophy

Burtt E. A. , The metaphysical foundations of modern physical science. A historical and critical essay (2nd edn, London, 1932); Whitehead A. N. , Science and the modern world (Cambridge, 1953).

Coleman W. , Biology in the nineteenth century: Problems of form, function, and transformation (New York, 1971); Mendelsohn E. , “The biological sciences in the nineteenth century”, History of science, iii (1964), 39–59; Rothschuh K. E. , History of physiology (trans. Risse G. B. , Huntington, N.Y., 1972), and Physiologie. Der Wandel ihrer Konzepte, Probleme und Methoden von 16. bis 19. Jahrhundert (Freiburg, 1908).

Heimann P. M. and McGuire J. E. , “Newtonian forces and Lockean powers: Concepts of matter in eighteenth-century thought”, Historical studies in the physical sciences, iii (1971), 233–306; McGuire J. E. , “Force, active principles, and Newton's invisible realm”, Ambix, xv (1968), 154–208; Schofield R. E. , Mechanism and materialism. British natural philosophy in an Age of Reason (Princeton, 1970); Thackray A. W. , Atoms and powers. An essay on Newtonian matter-theory and the development of chemistry (Cambridge, Mass., 1970).

It is not yet clear how far this holds as a generality and how far this represents a sharp contrast with seventeenth century thought.

For example: Heimann and McGuire (1971) (ref. 3); Cannon W. F. , “The bases of Darwin's achievement: A revaluation”, Victorian studies, v (1961), 109–34; Gillispie C. C. , Genesis and geology. A study of scientific thought, natural theology, and social opinion in Great Britain, 1790–1850 (New York, 1959); Willey B. , The eighteenth-century background. Studies on the idea of nature in the thought of the period (Harmondsworth, 1962); Young R. M. , “Darwin's metaphor: Does Nature select?”, The monist, lv (1971), 442–503 and “Natural theology, Victorian periodicals, and the fragmentation of the common context”, Victorian studies, forthcoming.

Young R. M. , “Scholarship and the history of the behavioural sciences”, History of science, v (1966), 1–51. This review includes an extensive bibliography and guide to reference materials in the history of psychology.

These surveys, containing little substantial novelty and little contribution to history, continue, particularly as the history of psychology becomes common in psychology courses in the United States: Capretta P. J. , A history of psychology in outline: From its origins to the present (New York, 1967); Fraisse P. , “The evolution of experimental psychology”, in Fraisse P. and Piaget J. (eds), Experimental psychology: Its scope and method. Vol. i: History and method (trans. Chambers J. , New York, 1968), 1–90; Klein D. B. , A history of scientific psychology. Its origins and philosophical backgrounds (London, 1970); Lowry R. , The evolution of psychological theory, 1650 to the present (Chicago, 1971); Misiak H. and Sexton V. S. , History of psychology: An overview (New York, 1966); O'Neil W. M. , The beginnings of modern psychology (Harmondsworth, 1968); Schultz D. P. , A history of modern psychology (New York, 1969); Thomson R. , The Pelican history of psychology (Harmondsworth, 1968); Watson R. I. , The great psychologists. From Aristotle to Freud (2nd edn, Philadelphia, 1968); Wertheimer M. , A brief history of psychology (New York, 1970). For a survey of the continental traditions and literature, see Pongratz L. J. , Problemgeschichte der Psychologie (Bern, 1967).

Boring E. G. , A history of experimental psychology (2nd edn, New York, 1950). The philosophical aspect of the history of psychology has been defined by Brett G. S. , A history of psychology (London, 1912–21, 3 vols), abridged as Brett's history of psychology (ed. Peters R. S. , 2nd edn, London, 1962).

For useful introductions: Campbell K. , Body and mind (New York, 1970); Hook S. (ed.), Dimensions of mind. A symposium (London, 1961). For the currently popular ‘Identity’ theory: Borst C. V. (ed.), The mind-brain identity theory (London, 1970); with comprehensive bibliographies, Feigl H. , The “mental” and the ‘physical’. The essay and a postscript (Minneapolis, 1967).

For clear statements of this view: Brown T. , Lectures on the philosophy of the human mind (2nd edn, Edinburgh, 1824, 4 vols, and reprint, Hildesheim, forthcoming), i, 8–9; de Biran Maine , in Moore F. C. T. , The psychology of Maine de Biran (Oxford, 1970), part 1, sect. 4; Martineau J. , “Cerebral psychology: Bain”, National review, x (1860), 500–21, reprinted in Essays, reviews and addresses (London, 1890–1, 4 vols), iii, 537–66.

Ideas of ‘function’ and ‘biological levels’ of explanation are discussed in: Beckner M. , The biological way of thought (Berkeley, 1968); Taylor G. , The explanation of behaviour (London, 1964).

Ben-David J. and Collins R. , “Social factors in the origins of a new science: The case of psychology”, American sociological review, xxxi (1966), 451–65; Canguilhem G. , “La constitution de la physiologie comme science”, in Études d'histoire et de philosophie des sciences (Paris, 1968), 226–73; French R. D. , “Some problems and sources in the foundations of modern physiology in Great Britain”, History of science, x (1971), 28–55; Geison G. L. , “Social and institutional factors in the stagnancy of English physiology, 1840–1870”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, xlvi (1972), 30–58; Schiller J. , “Physiology's struggle for independence in the first half of the nineteenth century”, History of science, vii (1968), 64–89; Taylor D. W. , “The life and teaching of William Sharpey (1802–1880): The ‘father of modern physiology’ in Britain”, Medical history, xv (1971), 126–53, 241–59.

For the medical background of these studies: Brown T. M. , “The College of Physicians and the acceptance of iatromechanism in England, 1665–1695”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, xliv (1970), 12–30; Canguilhem G. , La formation du concept de réflexe aux XVII^e et XVIII^e siècles (Paris, 1955); Isler H. , Thomas Willis, 1621–1675. Doctor and scientist (New York, 1968); King L. S. , The road to medical enlightenment 1650–1695 (London, 1970); Meyer A. and Hierons R. , “On Thomas Willis's concepts of neurophysiology”, Medical history, ix (1965), 1–15, 142–55.

Descartes R. , Discourse on method, optics, geometry and meterology (trans. Olscamp P. J. , New York, 1965); “Letters on the mind-body problem, to Regius, to Princess Elizabeth, and to Arnauld; and ‘Replies to the sixth objections’”, in Smith N. K. (ed. and trans.), Descartes' philosophical writings (London, 1952), 267–81; “The passions of the soul”, in Haldane E. S. and Ross G. R. T. (eds and trans.), The philosophical works of Descartes (Cambridge, 1967, 2 vols), i, 329–427; Treatise of man (trans. Hall T. S. , Cambridge, Mass., 1972). Cf. Jefferson G. , “René Descartes on the localization of the soul”, in Selected papers (London, 1960), 45–69; Pastore N. , Selective history of theories of visual perception: 1650–1950 (New York, 1971), chap. 2; Riese W. , “Descartes's ideas of brain function”, in Poynter F. N. L. (ed.), The history and philosophy of knowledge of the brain and its functions (Oxford, 1958, and reprint, Amsterdam, 1972), 115–34; Rosenfield L. D. , “Descartes and Henry More on the beast-machine—a translation of their correspondence pertaining to animal automatism”, Annals of science, i (1936), 48–61; Smith N. K. , New studies in the philosophy of Descartes. Descartes as pioneer (London, 1963), chap. 5.

Balz A. G. A. , Cartesian studies (New York, 1951); Huxley T. H. , “On the hypothesis that animals are automata and its history”, in Methods and results. Essays (London, 1893), 199–250; Kirkinen H. , Les origines de la conception moderne de l'homme machine. Le problème de l'âme en France à la fin du règne de Louis XIV (1670–1715) (Helsinki, 1960); Lange F. A. , The history of materialism and criticism of its present importance (trans. Thomas E. C. , 3rd edn, London, 1925), Book i, section 4, chaps. 1, 2; Rosenfield L. C. , From beast-machine to man-machine. Animal soul in French letters from Descartes to La Mettrie (New York, 1941); Vartanian A. , Diderot and Descartes. A study of scientific naturalism in the Enlightenment (Princeton, 1953). For the relation of the animal-machine hypothesis to recurrent problems of instinct and animal behaviour: Young R. M. , “Animal soul”, in Edwards P. (ed.), The encyclopedia of philosophy (New York, 1967), i, 122–7.

de La Mettrie J. O. , Man a machine. Including Frederick the Great's “Eulogy” on La Mettrie and extracts from La Mettrie's “The natural history of the soul” (trans. Bussey G. C. , La Salle, 1961); Gunderson K. , “Descartes, La Mettrie, language and machines”, Philosophy, xxxix (1964), 193–223; Vartanian A. , L'homme machine: A study in the origins of an idea (Princeton, 1960), and “Trembley's polyp, La Mettrie, and eighteenth-century French materialism”, in Wiener P. P. and Noland A. (eds), Roots of scientific thought. A cultural perspective (New York, 1957), 497–516.

Cassirer E. , The philosophy of the Enlightenment (trans. Koellin F. C. A. and Pettegrove J. P. , Boston, 1955); Gay P. , The Enlightenment. An interpretation. Vol. ii: The science of freedom (London, 1970).

Perkins J. A. , “Diderot and La Mettrie”, Studies on Voltaire and the eighteenth century, x (1959), 49–100, and The concept of the self in the French Enlightenment (Geneva, 1969); Lange (1925) (ref. 15), Book i, sect. 4, ch. 4. See also ref. 65.

See ref. 58.

Hartley D. , Observations on man, his frame, his duty, and his expectations (London, 1749, 2 vols, and reprint, Gainsville, 1966, and Hildesheim, 1967), and Various conjectures on the perception, motion and generation of ideas (trans. Palmer R. E. A. , Los Angeles, 1959); Rand B. , “Early development of Hartley's doctrine of association”, Psychological review, xxx (1923), 306–20. For the theological content of Hartley's thought: Marsh R. , “The second part of Hartley's system”, Journal of the history of ideas, xx (1959), 264–73. On the history of the association psychology the following works may be consulted: Ribot T. , English psychology (trans. Fitzgerald J. , London, 1873; Warren H. C. , A history of the association psychology (London, 1921, and reprint, New York, 1967); Young R. M. , “The influence of the association of ideas as an explanatory principle in the biomedical and human sciences”, in Wiener P. P. (ed.), Dictionary of the history of ideas (New York, forthcoming). A comparable psychology based on sensationalism was developed by Bonnet C. , Essai de psychologie; ou considérations sur les operations de l'âme, sur l'habitude et sur l'education. Auxquelles on a ajouté des principes philosophiques sur la cause première et sur son effet (London, 1755); Essai analytique sur les facultés de l'âme (Copenhagen, 1760, and reprint, Geneva, 1971).

Priestley J. , Hartley's theory of the human mind, on the principle of the association of ideas; with introductory essays relating to the subject of it (London, 1775); Disquisitions relating to matter and spirit (London, 1777); A free discussion of the doctrines of materialism and philosophical necessity, in a correspondence between Dr. Price and Dr. Priestley (London, 1778); extracts in Passmore J. A. (ed.), Priestley's writings on philosophy, science, and politics (New York, 1965), part 1.

See ref. 3; Schofield R. E. , “Joseph Priestley—natural philosopher”, Ambix, xiv (1967), 1–15.

Priestley J. , An examination of Dr. Reid's Inquiry into the human mind on the principles of common sense, Dr. Beattie's Essay on the nature and immutability of truth, and Dr. Oswald's Appeal to common sense in behalf of religion (London, 1774, and reprint, Hildesheim, forthcoming); Rice R. A. , “Joseph Priestley's materialist theory of cognition: Its evolution and historical significance” (Ph. D. Dissertation, Brandeis University, 1969).

von Haller A. , First lines of physiology (ed. Cullen W. , Edinburgh, 1786, 2 vols, and reprint, New York, 1966), ii, ch. 18; King L. S. , “Stahl and Hoffmann: A study in eighteenth century animism”, Journal of the history of medicine, xix (1964), 118–30; Rather L. J. , “G. E. Stahl's psychological physiology”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, xxxv (1961), 37–49, and Mind and body in eighteenth century medicine. A study based on Jerome Gaub's ‘De regimine mentis’ (London, 1965); the valuable bibliography in Laehr H. , Die Literatur der Psychiatrie im XVIII. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1892).

von Haller A. , Mémoires sur la nature sensible et irritable, des parties du corps animal (Lausanne, 1756–60), vol. i containing the memoir, vols ii and iii containing commentaries by critics, and vol. iv containing Haller's replies; Elementa physiologiae corporis humani. Tomus quartus: Cerebrum. Nervi. Musculi (Lausanne, 1762); Haller 1786 (ref. 24), i, ch. 11 and 12; “A dissertation on the sensible and irritable parts of animals” (ed. Temkin O. ), Bulletin of the history of medicine, iv (1936), 651–99. Cf. Temkin O. , “The classical roots of Glisson's doctrine of irritation”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, xxxviii (1964), 297–328.

For some materials: French R. K. , Robert Whytt, the soul and medicine (London, 1969); Aesch A. Gode-Von , Natural science in German Romanticism (New York, 1966), ch. 10; Hall T. S. , Ideas of life and matter. Studies in the history of general physiology 600 b.c.—1900 a.d . (Chicago, 1969, 2 vols), ii, ch. 34 and 35; King L. S. , The medical world of the eighteenth century (Chicago, 1958, and reprint, Huntington, N.Y., 1971); Ritterbush P. C. , Overtures to biology: The speculations of eighteenth century naturalists (New Haven, 1964); Roger J. , Les sciences de la vie dans la pensée français du XVIIIe siècle. La génération des animaux de Descartes à l'Encyclopédie (Paris, 1963); Rothschuh (1968) (ref. 2); Vartanian (1957); (1960), ch. 4 (ref. 16).

Darwin E. , Zoonomia. Or the laws of organic life (London, 1794–96, 2 vols, and reprint, Hildesheim, forthcoming). For a bibliography: Schofield R. E. , The Lunar Society of Birmingham. A social history of provincial science and industry in eighteenth-century England (Oxford, 1963), 442–4. Cf. Halévy E. , The growth of philosophic radicalism (trans. Morris M. , London, 1952); Krause E. , Erasmus Darwin (London, 1879, and reprint, Farnborough, 1971); Lewes G. H. , The history of philosophy from Thales to Comte (5th edn, London, 1880, 2 vols, and reprint, Farnborough, 1970).

Bell C. , “Idea of a new anatomy of the brain; submitted for the observations of his friends”, in Gordon-Taylor G. and Walls E. W. , Sir Charles Bell. His life and times (Edinburgh, 1958), 218–31; also reprinted in Dennis W. (ed)., Readings in the history of psychology (New York, 1948). Bell's and Magendie's papers are included in [ Walker A. ], Documents and dates of modern discoveries in the nervous system (London, 1839). Müller J. , Handbuch der Physiologie des Menschen für Vorlesungen (Coblenz, 1833–37, 2 vols); Elements of physiology (trans. Baly W. , London, 1839–42, 2 vols). Cf. Anonymous, “Recent discoveries on the physiology of the nervous system”, Edinburgh medical and surgical journal, xxi (1824), 142–59; Carmichael L. , “Sir Charles Bell: A contribution to the history of physiological psychology”, Psychological review, xxxiii (1926), 188–217; Koller G. , Das Leben des Biologen. Johannes Müller 1801–1858 (Stuttgart, 1958) with bibliography, 241–60; Olmstead J. M. D. , François Magendie, pioneer in experimental physiology and scientific medicine in nineteenth century France (New York, 1944); Young R. M. , Mind, brain, and adaptation in the nineteenth century. Cerebral localization and its biological context from Gall to Ferrier (Oxford, 1970).

On the general history of neurophysiology: Brazier M. A. B. , “The historical development of neurophysiology”, in Field J. (ed.), Handbook of physiology. A critical, comprehensive presentation of physiological knowledge and concepts. Section 1, Neurophysiology (Washington, 1959), i, 1–58; Clarke E. and O'Malley C. D. , The human brain and spinal cord. A historical study illustrated by writings from antiquity to the twentieth century (Berkeley, 1968); Poynter (1958) (ref. 14); Haymaker W. and Schiller F. , (eds), The founders of neurology (2nd edn, Springfield, Ill., 1970); Rothschuh K. E. (ed.), Von Boerhaave bis Berger. Die Entwicklung der kontinentalen Physiologie im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Neurophysiologie (Stuttgart, 1964); Soury J. , La système nerveux central; structure et fonctions. Histoire critique des théories et des doctrines (Paris, 1899, 2 vols).

The critical studies are Young R. M. , “The functions of the brain: Gall to Ferrier (1808–1886)”, Isis, lix (1968), 251–68; 1970 (ref. 28). For iconography and research materials: Clarke E. and Dewhurst K. , An illustrated history of brain function (Oxford, 1972). For pre-nineteenth century views: Neuburger M. , Die historische Entwicklung der experimentellen Gehirn- und Rückenmarksphysiologie vor Flourens (Stuttgart, 1897; trans. in progress, Clarke E. ).

Ferrier D. , The functions of the brain (London, 1876, and reprint, London, 1966); Jefferson G. , “The prodromes to cortical localization”, in (1960) (ref. 14), 113–31; Riese W. , A history of neurology (New York, 1959); Walshe F. M. R. , “Some reflections upon the opening phase of the physiology of the cerebral cortex, 1850–1900”, in Poynter (1958) (ref. 14), 223–34.

Morell J. D. , “Modern English psychology”, British and foreign medico-chirurgical review, xvii (1856), 347–64.

Canguilhem (1955) (ref. 13); Fearing F. , Reflex action. A study in the history of physiological psychology (New York, 1964); Liddell E. G. T. , The discovery of reflexes (Oxford, 1960).

Canguilhem (1955) (ref. 13); Carmichael L. , “Robert Whytt: A contribution to the history of physiological psychology”, Psychological review, xxxiv (1927), 287–304; French (1969) (ref. 26), ch. 7; Kruta V. , “The physiologist George Procháska (1749–1820) and the reflex theory”, Epilepsia, 4th series, iii (1962), 446–56; Laycock T. (trans. and ed.), ‘The principles of physiology’, by John Augustus Unzer; and ‘A dissertation on the functions of the nervous system’, by George Procháska (London, 1851).

Hall M. , “A brief account of a particular function of the nervous system”, Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, ii (1832), 190–2, and, “On the reflex function of the medulla oblongata and medulla spinalis”, Philosophical transactions, cxxiii (1833), 635–65; Müller (1839–42) (ref. 28). For a bibliography of Hall: Hall C. , Memoirs of Marshall Hall, md, frs (London, 1861), 514–8. Cf. Canguilhem G. , “Le concept de réflexe au XIX^e siècle”, in (1968) (ref. 12), 295–304; Jefferson G. , “Marshall Hall, the grasp reflex and the diastaltic spinal cord”, in (1960) (ref. 14), 73–93.

Defended, for example, by Carpenter W. B. , Principles of human physiology, with their chief applications to pathology, hygiene, and forensic medicine (London, 1842); Grainger R. D. , Observations on the structure and functions of the spinal cord (London, 1837). Criticised, for example, by Baly W. , note in Müller (1839–42) (ref. 28), i, 768–72; Carpenter W. B. , “On the physiology and diseases of the nervous system”, British and foreign medico-chirurgical review, v (1850), 1–50; Todd R. B. , “Physiology of the nervous system”, in The cyclopaedia of anatomy and physiology (London, 1835–55), iii, 720g–723g.

Cf. Fearing (1964) (ref. 32), ch. 11, on the ‘Pflüger-Lotze Controversy’ Lewes G. H. , The physiology of common life (Edinburgh, 1859–60, 2 vols), ii, 159–91.

Carpenter W. B. , Principles of human physiology, with their chief applications to psychology, pathology, therapeutics, hygiene, and forensic medicine (4th edn, London, 1853); Griesinger W. , “Ueber psychishe Reflexactionen. Mit einem Blick auf das Wesen der psychischen Krankheiten”, Archiv für physiologische Heilkunde, ii (1843), 76–113; Laycock T. , “On the reflex functions of the brain”, British and foreign medical review, xix (1845), 298–311, and, “Further researches into the functions of the brain”, British and foreign medico-chirurgical review, xvi (1855), 155–87; Sechenov I. , “Reflexes of the brain”, in Selected physiological and psychological works (trans. Belsky S. , Moscow, 1960), 31–139. For a study of Carpenter's and Laycock's theories: Smith R. , “Physiological psychology and the philosophy of nature in mid-nineteenth century Britain”, (Ph.D. Dissertation, Cambridge University, 1970). On Sechenov: Yaroshevski I. M. , “I. M. Sechenov—the founder of objective psychology”, in Wolman B. B. (ed.), Historical roots of contemporary psychology (New York, 1968), 77–110. An important statement of the reductionist implications of brain reflexes was Maudsley H. , The physiology and the pathology of the mind (London, 1867); significantly cited in Bagehot W. , Physics and politics. Or thoughts on the application of the principles of ‘natural selection’ and ‘inheritance’ to political society (London, 1900), and in von Hartmann E. , Philosophy of the unconscious. Speculative results according to the inductive method of physical science (trans. Coupland W. C. , London, 1931). On the development of Sherrington's ideas: Liddell (1960) (ref. 32); Swazey J. P. , “Sherrington's concept of integrative action”, Journal of the history of biology, i (1968), 57–89, and Reflexes and motor integration: Sherrington's concept of integrative action (Cambridge, Mass., 1969).

The regulative principle of continuity was applied by Laycock in a superficially evolutionary framework (a dynamic ‘chain of being’) and by others, for example, Morell J. D. , Elements of psychology. Part 1 (London, 1853), and An introduction to mental philosophy, on the inductive method (London, 1862) in an idealistic framework. For the importance of evolutionary thought: Jackson J. H. , Selected writings of John Hughlings Jackson (ed. Taylor J. , London, 1958, 2 vols); Magoun H. W. , “Evolutionary concepts of brain function following Darwin and Spencer”, in Tax S. (ed.), Evolution after Darwin. The University of Chicago centennial (Chicago, 1960), ii, 187–209; Young (1970) (ref. 28). The best introduction to Jackson's influential neurological thought is Walshe F. M. R. , “Contributions of John Hughlings Jackson to neurology. A brief introduction to his teachings”, Archives of neurology, v (1961), 119–31; cf. Greenblatt S. H. , “The major influences on the early life and work of John Hughlings Jackson”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, xxxix (1965), 346–76, and “Hughlings Jackson's first encounter with the work of Paul Broca: The physiological and philosophical background”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, xliv (1970), 555–70. The importance of Jackson's theories and of neurological ideas to psychoanalysis has been repeatedly noticed: Amacher P. , Freud's neurological education and its influence on psychoanalytic theory (Psychological issues , monograph 16, New York, 1965); Jones A. E. , Sigmund Freud. Life and Works (London, 1953–57, 3 vols), i; Stengel E. A. , “A re-evaluation of Freud's book ‘On aphasia’. Its significance for psycho-analysis”, International journal for psycho-analysis, xxxv (1954), 85–9, and “Hughlings Jackson's influence on psychiatry”, British journal of psychiatry, cix (1963), 348–55; Pibram K. H. , “The foundation of psychoanalytical theory: Freud's neurophysiological model”, in Pibram K. H. (ed.), Adaptation: Selected readings (Harmondsworth, 1969), 395–432.

Lewes G. H. (1859–60) (ref. 36), and Problems of life and mind (London, 1874–9, 5 vols, and reprint, Hildesheim, forthcoming); Spencer H. , The principles of psychology (London, 1855, and reprint, Farnborough, 1970), and First principles (London, 1862). Spencer's thought and its context is discussed in Peel J. D. Y. , Herbert Spencer. The evolution of a sociologist (London, 1971). Cf. Angell J. R. , “The province of functional psychology”, Psychological review, xiv (1907), 61–91, reprinted in Dennis (1948) (ref. 28), 439–56, and “The influence of Darwin on psychology”, Psychological review, xvi (1909), 152–69; Dewey J. , “The reflex arc concept in psychology”, Psychological review, iii (1896), 357–70, reprinted in Dennis (1948) (ref. 28), 355–65; Madden E. H. , Chauncey Wright and the foundations of pragmatism (Seattle, 1963); Harrison R. , “Functionalism and its historical significance”, Genetic psychology monographs, lxviii (1963), 387–423; Postman L. , “The history and present status of the law of effect”, Psychological bulletin, xliv (1947), 489–563; Wiener P. P. , Evolution and the founders of pragmatism (New York, 1965).

Brazier in Field (1959) (ref. 28), 55. Cf. Anokhin P. K. , “Ivan P. Pavlov and psychology”, in Wolman (1968) (ref. 37), 131–59; Frolov Y. P. , Pavlov and his school (London, 1937); Pavlov I. P. , Selected works (ed. Koshtoyants K. S. , Moscow, 1955), and Lectures on conditioned reflexes. Twenty-five years of objective study of the higher nervous activity (behaviour) of animals (trans. Gantt W. H. , London, 1963, 2 vols).

Watson J. B. , “Psychology as the behaviorist views it”, Psychological review, xx (1913), 158–77, reprinted in Dennis (1948) (ref. 28), 457–71.

Ackernecht E. A. , A short history of psychiatry (2nd edn, New York, 1968); Carlson E. T. and Simpson M. M. , “Models of the nervous system in eighteenth century psychiatry”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, xliii (1969), 101–15; Foucault M. , Madness and civilization. A history of insanity in the Age of Reason (trans. Howard R. , London, 1967); Hunter R. and MacAlpine I. , Three hundred years of psychiatry 1535–1860. A history presented in selected English texts (London, 1963); Laehr (1892) (ref. 24); Mora G. , “The history of psychiatry: A cultural and bibliographic essay”, Psychoanalytic review , lii (1965), 154–84; Mora G. and Brand J. L. , (eds), Psychiatry and its history. Methodological problems in research (Springfield, Ill., 1970); Rosen G. , “Social attitudes to irrationality and madness in 17th and 18th century Europe”, Journal of the history of medicine, xix (1963), 220–40, reprinted in Madness and society. Chapters in the historical sociology of mental illness (New York, 1969); Temkin O. , The falling sickness: A history of epilepsy from the Greeks to the beginnings of modern neurology (2nd edn, Baltimore, 1971).

Griesinger W. , Mental pathology and therapeutics (trans. Robertson C. L. and Rutherford J. , London, 1867, and reprint, New York, 1965), ch. 3; Laycock T. , A treatise on the nervous diseases of women; comprising an inquiry into the nature, causes, and treatment of spinal and hysterical disorders (London, 1840), 85–113; Maudsley H. , Body and mind. An inquiry into their connexion and mutual influence, specially in reference to mental disorders (London, 1870).

Ellenberger H. F. , The discovery of the unconscious. The history and evolution of dynamic psychiatry (London, 1970), ch. 2–4; Aesch Gode-Von (1966) (ref. 26), ch. 9; Sarbin T. R. , “Attempts to understand hypnotic phenomena”, in Postman L. (ed.), Psychology in the making: Histories of selected research problems (New York, 1962), 745–85; extracts from the primary sources in Tinterow M. M. , Foundations of hypnosis from Mesmer to Freud (Springfield, Ill., 1970).

On the important radical political affiliations of the mesmerist movement (and of related ‘Rousseauist enthusiasms’): Darnton R. , Mesmerism and the end of the Enlightenment in France (Cambridge, Mass., 1968).

Braid J. , Neurypnology; or, the rationale of nervous sleep considered in relation with animal magnetism (London, 1843). For a bibliography of Braid and related writings: Bramwell J. M. , Hypnotism, its history, practice and theory (London, 1903), 440–64. On the French schools of hypnotism: Bernheim H. , De la suggestion et de ses applications à la thérapeutique (2nd edn, Paris, 1888), ch. 7 and 8; Binet A. and Féré C. , Animal magnetism (London, 1887); Veith I. , Hysteria. The history of a disease (Chicago, 1965), ch. 10.

Carpenter W. B. , “On the influence of suggestion in modifying and directing muscular movements, independently of volition”, Proceedings of the Royal Institution , i (1852), 147–53; Laycock T. , “Odyle, mesmerism, electrobiology, &c.”, British and foreign medico-chirurgical review, viii (1851), 378–431; Rosen G. , “Mesmerism and surgery, a strange chapter in the history of anesthesia”, Journal of the history of medicine, i (1946), 527–50.

Cf. Hearnshaw L. S. , A short history of British psychology, 1840–1940 (London, 1964), 22: “It was this doctrine ['attention'] that enabled the members [of a school of physiological psychology] to escape from the dread bogey of ‘materialism’.

On the development of physiological psychology in Britain: Bain A. , The senses and the intellect (London, 1855), and The emotions and the will (London, 1859); Cardno J. A. , “Bain and physiological psychology”, Australian journal of philosophy, vii (1955), 108–20; Hearnshaw , op. cit.; Smith (1970) (ref. 37). For a bibliography of Bain: Nairn A. , “Alexander Bain” (University of London Diploma in Librarianship, 1960).

Pratt C. C. , “Faculty psychology”, Psychological review, xxxvi (1929), 142–71. For the eclectic and mentalist tendencies in faculty psychology, for example: Garnier A. , Traité des facultés de l'âme, comprenant l'histoire des principales théories psychologiques (2nd edn, Paris, 1865, 3 vols).

The importance of phrenology is now widely recognized and its relation to concepts of cerebral localization well understood: Jefferson G. , “The contemporary reaction to phrenology”, in (1960) (ref. 14), 94–112; Temkin O. , “Gall and the phrenological movement”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, xxi (1947), 275–321; Young (1970) (ref. 28).

Bichat X. , Physiological researches on life and death (trans. Gold F. , London, n.d.), part 1, ch. 6–8; General anatomy, applied to the physiology and to the practice of medicine (trans. Coffyn C. , London, 1824, 2 vols), i, 238–76. On internal sensation: Temkin O. , “The philosophical background of Magendie's physiology”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, xx (1946), 10–35. For J. C. Reil's work on the activity and feeling of bodily functions: Lewis A. , “J. C. Reil's concepts of brain function”, in Poynter (1958) (ref. 14), 154–66; Zaunick R. (ed.), Johann Christian Reil, 1759–1813 (Leipzig, 1960) with bibliography, 32–39.

Bichat (1824) (ref. 51), i, Introduction, esp. sect. vi; Entralgo P. L. , “Sensualism and vitalism in Bichat's ‘Anatomie générale’”, Journal of the history of medicine, iii (1948), 47–64; Hall (1969) (ref. 26), ii, ch. 36. On the relation between Bichat's biology and the contemporary philosophy of ‘Ideology’: Janet P. , “Schopenhauer et la physiologie française. Cabanis et Bichat”, Revue des deux mondes , xxxix (1880, 3rd period), 35–59; Temkin (1946) (ref. 51). On contemporary medicine: Ackernecht E. H. , Medicine at the Paris Hospital 1794–1848 (Baltimore, 1967); Rosen G. , “The philosophy of Ideology and the emergence of modern medicine in France”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, xx (1946), 328–39; Foucault M. , Naissance de la clinique. Une archéologie du regard médical (Paris, 1963). See also Laignel-Lavastine M. , “Sources, principes, sillage et critique de l'oeuvre de Bichat”, Bulletin de la Société française de Philosophie, xlvi (1952), 1–38.

Riese W. and Arrington G. E. , “The history of Johannes Müller's doctrine of the specific energies of the senses: Original and later versions”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, xxxvii (1963), 179–83. Müller's work gave influential expression to what was becoming a common idea.

On this and the general history of specific nerve energies: Boring E. G. , Sensation and perception in the history of experimental psychology (New York, 1942), and (1950) (ref. 8), ch. 5; Riese (1959) (ref. 30), ch. 5; Merz J. T. , A history of European thought in the nineteenth century (New York, 1965, 4 vols), ii, 480–92. For comments on the relation between the primary and secondary qualities and nerve energies: Holt E. R. , “The place of illusory experience in a realistic world”, in Holt E. R. , The New Realism (New York, 1912), 313–76; Montgomery E. , “The dependence of quality on specific energies”, Mind, v (1880), 1–29.

On the history of nerve conduction (which is intimately connected with contemporary physical theories, notably of imponderable fluids): Brazier M. A. B. , “Rise of neurophysiology in the nineteenth century”, Journal of neurophysiology, xx (1957), 212–26, and “The evolution of concepts relating to the electrical activity of the nervous system 1600 to 1800”, in Poynter (1958) (ref. 14), 191–222; Home R. W. , “Electricity and the nervous fluid”, Journal of the history of biology, iii (1970), 235–51; Jackson S. W. , “Force and kindred notions in eighteenth-century neurophysiology and medical psychology”, Bulletin of the history of medicine, xliv (1970), 397–410 and 539–54. For the impact of evolution on comparative studies of the nervous impulse: French R. D. , “Darwin and the physiologists, or the medusa and modern cardiology”, Journal of the history of biology, iii (1970), 253–74. See also: Rothschuh (1964) (ref. 28).

For studies in criticism of this psychology of content: Reeves J. W. , Thinking about thinking. Studies in the background of some psychological approaches (London, 1969).

There is great need for systematic study in this area, beginning with the clarifications in MacIntyre A. , A short history of ethics (London, 1967). Cf. Driver C. H. , “The development of a psychological approach to politics in English speculation before 1869”, in Hearnshaw F. J. C. (ed.), The social and political ideas of some representative thinkers of the Victorian age (London, 1933), 251–71; Gay (1970) (ref. 17); Halévy (1952) (ref. 27); Mackintosh J. , “Dissertation second: Exhibiting a general view of the progress of ethical philosophy, chiefly during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries”, in Encyclopaedia Britannica (8th edn, Edinburgh, 1860), i, 291–445; McReynolds P. , “The motivational psychology of Jeremy Bentham”, Journal of the history of the behavioral sciences, iv (1968), 230–44 and 349–64; Miller E. F. , “Hume's contribution to behavioral science”, Journal of the history of the behavioral sciences, vii (1971), 154–68; Mischel T. , “‘Emotion’ and ‘motivation’ in the development of English psychology: D. Hartley, James Mill, A. Bain”, Journal of the history of the behavioral sciences, ii (1966), 123–44; Passmore J. , Hume's intentions (2nd edn, London, 1968); Stewart D. , “Dissertation first: Exhibiting a general view of the progress of metaphysical and ethical philosophy, since the revival of letters in Europe”, in Encyclopaedia Britannica (8th edn, Edinburgh, 1860), i, 1–289; Roberts T. A. , The concept of benevolence: Aspects of eighteenth century moral philosophy (London, 1973).

Locke J. , An essay concerning human understanding (ed. Yolton J. , London, 1965, 2 vols). Cf. Boas M. , “The establishment of the Mechanical Philosophy”, Osiris, x (1952), 412–541; Dijksterhuis E. J. , The mechanization of the world picture (trans. Dikshoorn C. , London, 1969); Harré R. , Matter and method (London, 1964); Mandelbaum M. , Philosophy, science and sense perception: Historical and critical studies (Baltimore, 1964), ch. 1; Yolton J. , Locke and the compass of human understanding. A selective commentary on the ‘Essay’ (Cambridge, 1970).

Armstrong D. M. , “The secondary qualities. An essay in the classification of theories”, Australasian journal of philosophy, xlvi (1968), 225–41; Bennett J. , “Substance, reality, and primary qualities”, American philosophical quarterly, ii (1965), 1–17; Maier A. , Die Mechanisierung der Weltbilds im 17. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1938); Stout G. F. , “Primary and secondary qualities”, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, n.s., iv (1903–4), 141–60; White P. J. , “Materialism and the concept of motion in Locke's theory of sense-idea causation”, Studies in history and philosophy of science, ii (1971), 97–134.

Cf. Heimann and McGuire (1971) (ref. 3).

Hamlyn D. W. , Sensation and perception. A history of the philosophy of perception (London, 1961).

Berkeley G. , “A new theory of vision”, in A new theory of vision and other writings (ed. Lindsay A. D. , London, 1910), 1–86; Armstrong D. M. , Berkeley's theory of vision. A critical examination of Bishop Berkeley's ‘Essay towards a new theory of vision’ (Melbourne, 1960). Pastore (1971) (ref. 14) is an essential guide to problems in visual perception but, as is made explicit, the history is interpreted in the light of modern scientific theories and logical clarifications.

de Condillac E. B. Abbé , Condillac's treatise on the sensations (trans. Carr G. , London, 1930), and Oeuvres philosophiques de Condillac (ed. Le Roy G. , Paris, 1947–8, 2 vols); Le Roy G. , La psychologie de Condillac (Paris, 1937).

Chomsky N. , Cartesian linguistics. A chapter in the history of rationalist thought (New York, 1966); Gillispie C. C. , The edge of objectivity. An essay in the history of scientific ideas (Princeton, 1960); Knight I. F. , The geometric spirit: The Abbé de Condillac and the French Enlightenment (New Haven, 1968).

d'Alembert J. L. , Essai sur les éléments de philosophie (reprint, Hildesheim, 1965); de Buffon G. L. L. Comte , “Des sens”, in “Histoire naturelle de l'homme”, in Oeuvres complètes de Buffon avec la nomenclature Linnéene et la classification de Cuvier (ed. Flourens P. , Paris, n.d.), ii, 100–37, also in De l'homme (ed. Duchet M. , Paris, 1971); Diderot D. , Diderot. Interpreter of nature. Selected writings (trans. Stewart J. and Kemp J. , New York, 1963), and Diderot's selected writings (ed. Crocker L. G. , New York, 1966); Bonnet (1755) (ref. 20); Helvétius C. A. , De l'esprit: Or, essays on the mind, and its several faculties (London, 1759, and reprint, New York, 1970), and A treatise on man; his intellectual faculties and his education (trans. Hooper W. , revised edn, London, 1810, 2 vols, and reprint, New York, 1970); de La Mettrie J. O. , Oeuvres philosophiques (new edn, Berlin, 1774, 2 vols, and reprint, Hildesheim, 1970). Cf. Creighton D. C. , “Man and mind in Diderot and Helvétius”, Publications of the Modern Language Association of America, lxxi (1956), 706–24; Grimsley R. , Jean d'Alembert (1717–83) (Oxford, 1963), ch. 10.

See ref. 18.

Leibniz G. W. , New essays concerning human understanding. Together with an appendix consisting of some of his shorter pieces (trans. Langley G. , New York, 1896); extracts in Leibniz: Philosophical writings (trans. Morris M. , London, 1934), and Selections (ed. Wiener P. P. , New York, 1951). The ‘New essays’ were first published in an influential French edition in 1765: Diderot D. , “Leibnitzianisme”, in Oeuvres complètes (ed. Assézat J. , Paris, 1876), xv, 436–73. Cf. Belaval Y. , “Le problème de la perception chez Leibniz”, Dialogue, viii (1969), 385–416; Hamlyn (1961) (ref. 61), 85–92.

Alexander I. W. , “Philosophy of organism and philosophy of consciousness in Diderot's speculative thought”, in Studies in Romance philology and French literature presented to John Orr (Manchester, 1953), 1–21; Grava A. , “Diderot and recent philosophical trends”, Diderot studies, iv (1963), 73–103; Wartofsky M. , “Diderot and the development of materialist monism”, Diderot studies, ii (1952), 279–329.

Reprints of Reid's works: Essays on the intellectual powers of man (ed. and abridged Woozley A. D. , London, 1941, and Cambridge, Mass., 1969); Essays on the active powers of man (Cambridge, Mass., 1969); An inquiry into the human mind (ed. Duggan T. J. , Chicago, 1970); Philosophical works. With notes and supplementary dissertations by Sir William Hamilton (8th edn, Hildesheim, 1967, 2 vols). Secondary sources include: Brody B. A. , “Reid and Hamilton on perception”, The monist, lv (1971), 423–41; Duggan T. J. , “Thomas Reid's theory of sensation”, Philosophical review, lxix (1960), 90–100; Grave S. A. , The Scottish philosophy of common sense (London, 1960); Jessop T. E. , A bibliography of David Hume and of Scottish philosophy from Francis Hutcheson to Lord Balfour (London, 1938); McCosh J. , The Scottish philosophy; biographical, expository, critical, from Hutcheson to Hamilton (London, 1875, and reprint, Hildesheim, 1966); Winch P. G. , “The notion of ‘suggestion’ in Thomas Reid's theory of perception”, Philosophical quarterly, iii (1953), 327–41.

Heimann and McGuire (1971) (ref. 3).

Boring (1942) (ref. 54); von Helmholtz H. , “The recent progress of the theory of vision”, in Popular lectures on scientific subjects (trans. Atkinson E. , new edn, London, 1904), i, 175–276, and Helmholtz's treatise on physiological optics (trans. and ed. Southall J. P. C. , n.p., 1924–25, 3 vols).

Boring (1942) (ref. 54); Mischel T. , “Wundt and the conceptual foundations of psychology”, Philosophy and phenomenological research, xxxi (1970), 1–26; Ribot T. , German psychology of to-day; the empirical school (trans. Baldwin J. M. , New York, 1886); Sully J. , “The question of visual perception in Germany”, Mind, iii (1878), 1–23, 167–95; Wundt W. , Grundzüge der Physiologischen Psychologie (Leipzig, 1874), and Principles of physiological psychology. vol. i (2nd edn, trans. Titchener E. B. from 5th German edn, London, 1910, and reprint, New York, 1969), and Outlines of psychology (trans. Judd C. H. , Leipzig, 1897, and reprint, St Clair Shores, 1969).

Mill J. , Analysis of the phenomena of the human mind (London, 1829, 2 vols, and reprint, Farnborough, forthcoming); ibid., Analysis of the phenomena of the human mind (new edn, ed. Mill J. S. , London, 1869, 2 vols, and reprint, East Orange, N.J., 1967), with important notes, especially by A. Bain. On associationism, see ref. 20. The height of continental systematic associationism is represented by Herbart J. F. : cf. Ribot (1886) (ref. 72); Stout G. F. , “The Herbartian psychology”, Mind, xiii (1888), 321–38, and “Herbart compared with English psychologists and with Beneke”, Mind, xiv (1889), 1–26, both essays reprinted as “The Herbartian psychology”, in Studies in philosophy and psychology (London, 1930), 1–50; Wolman B. B. , “The historical role of Johann Friedrich Herbart”, in Wolman (1968) (ref. 37), 29–46.

See ref. 48 and 72; Mill J. S. , “Bain's ‘psychology’”, Edinburgh review , cx (1859), 287–321, reprinted in Dissertations and discussions, political, philosophical, and historical (London, 1867, 3 vols), iii, 97–152. For criticisms of the Association Psychology: Brentano F. , Psychology from an empirical standpoint (ed. Kraus O. and McAlister L. L. , trans. Rancurello A. C. , New York, 1972); James W. , “On some omissions of introspective psychology”, Mind, ix (1884), 1–26; Stout G. F. , Analytic psychology (London, 1896, 2 vols); Ward J. , “Psychology”, in Encyclopaedia Britannica (9th edn, Edinburgh, 1886), xx, 37–85. Cf. Hamlyn D. W. , “Bradley, Ward and Stout”, in Wolman (1968) (ref. 37), 298–320; Rancurello A. C. , A study of Franz Brentano. His psychological standpoint and his significance in the history of psychology (New York, 1968); Sullivan J. J. , “Franz Brentano and the problems of intentionality”, in Wolman (1968) (ref. 37), 248–74. Brentano's thought is related to phenomenology in Chisholm R. M. (ed.) Realism and the background of phenomenology (New York, 1960); Humphrey G. , Thinking. An introduction to its experimental psychology (New York, 1963); Willshire B. , William James and phenomenology: A study of ‘The principles of psychology’ (Bloomington, 1968).

For a defence of introspection: Bain A. , “The respective spheres and mutual helps of introspection and psycho-physical experiment in psychology”, Mind, n.s., ii (1893), 42–53, reprinted in Dissertations on leading philosophical topics (London, 1903), 241–55. The attack was implicit, and often explicit, in the work of the experimentalists: See ref. 72; Sechenov I. , “Who is to elaborate the problems of psychology, and how?” in Sechenov (1960) (ref. 37), 179–260; Titchener E. B. , “Brentano and Wundt: Empirical and experimental psychology”, American journal of psychology, xxxii (1921), 108–20.

The indispensable guide to these topics is Passmore J. A. , A hundred years of philosophy (2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1968).

See ref. 39.

Abbott T. K. , Sight and touch: An attempt to disprove the received (or Berkeleian) theory of vision (London, 1864); Bailey S. , A review of Berkeley's theory of vision, designed to show the unsoundness of that celebrated speculation (London, 1842); Pastore N. , “Samuel Bailey's critique of Berkeley's theory of vision”, Journal of the history of the behavioral sciences, i (1965), 321–37, and (1971) (ref. 14).

James W. , “The perception of space”, Mind, xii (1887), 1–30, 183–211, 321–53, 516–48; The principles of psychology (New York, 1890, 2 vols, and reprint, New York, 1950).

Boring (1942) (ref. 54); Hochberg J. E. , “Nativism and empiricism in perception”, in Postman (1962) (ref. 44), 255–330.

See the pertinent and suggestive comments in Price H. H. , “Touch and organic sensation”, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, xliv (1944), i–xxx.

Hartley (1749) (ref. 20), i, 130–8.

Darwin (1794–96) (ref. 27), i, 122–4.

Brown (1824) (ref. 10), i, Lectures xxii–xxvi.

Mill (1829) (ref. 73).

de Tracy Destutt , Élémens d'ideologie (Paris, 1825–27, 5 vols), i, ch. 11–12 and, in the practical context, vol. v; Hallie P. P. , Maine de Biran; reformer of empiricism, 1766–1824 (Cambridge, Mass., 1959), 18–30; Moravia S. , “Logica e psicologia nel pensiero di D. de Tracy”, Rivista critica di storia della filosofia, xix (1964), 169–213.

Cabanis P. J. G. , Oeuvres philosophiques (ed. Lehec C. and Cazeneuve J. , Paris, 1956, 2 vols). Cf. refs. 51 and 52.

Brett (1912–21) (ref. 8), iii, 11–35.

Hallie (1959) (ref. 86); Moore (1970) (ref. 10), the essential exegesis and bibliographic guide to Biran's largely unpublished writings and to his sources.

Boas G. , French philosophies of the Romantic period (Baltimore, 1925); Hamilton W. , Lectures on metaphysics and logic (ed. Mansel H. L. and Veitch J. , Edinburgh, 1859–60, 4 vols), ii, 390–1; Morell J. D. , History of modern philosophy. An historical and critical view of the speculative philosophy of Europe in the nineteenth century (2nd edn, London, 1847, 2 vols), ii, 471–8.

Moore (1970) (ref. 10), section on ‘The will’.

For the physiological psychology of the muscle sense in the nineteenth century: Henri V. , “Revue générale sur le sens musculaire” and “Bibliographie du sens musculaire”, Année psychologique, v (1899), 399–557. Also: Sherrington C. S. , “The muscular sense”, in Schäfer E. A. (ed.), Text-book of physiology (Edinburgh, 1898–1900), ii, 1002–25; Smith (1970) (ref. 37), ch. 4.

Bell C. , “On the nervous circle which connects the voluntary muscles with the brain”, Philosophical transactions (1826, part i), 163–73, reprinted in The nervous system of the human body. Embracing the papers delivered to the Royal Society on the subject of nerves (London, 1830), 225–38; Carmichael (1926) (ref. 28).

Bell C. , The hand. Its mechanism and vital endowments as evincing design (2nd edn, London, 1833), 180 sqq.

Müller (1839–42) (ref. 28), ii, 1081–2, 1324 sqq. Müller was probably coherently expressing widespread ideas.

For these terms: Baldwin J. M. (ed.), Dictionary of philosophy and psychology … (New York, 1901–5, 4 vols, and reprint, Gloucester, Mass., 1960), i and ii, articles on “Effort”, “Innervation”, “Kinaesthetic sensation”, “Kinaesthesis”, “Muscular sensation”. “Kinaesthesis” was introduced by Bastian H. C. , “On the physiology of thinking”, Fortnightly review, n.s., v (1869), 57–71, and “On the ‘muscular sense’, and on the physiology of thinking”, British medical journal , (1869,i), 394–6, 437–9, 461–3, 509–12, and The brain as an organ of mind (4th edn, London, 1890), 440–4, 691–700. The concept of ‘Innervationsgefühl’ was introduced by Wundt (1874) (ref. 72), 316.

For Hamilton's relation to the Scottish School: Ref. 69.

Hamilton W. , “Supplementary dissertations; or excursive notes, critical and historical”, in Reid (1967) (ref. 69), ii, Note D; idem. (1859–60) (ref. 90), ii, Lectures xxvii–xxviii.

Indirectly indebted, via Müller, to Erasmus Darwin; Young (1970) (ref. 28), 115–9. On the importance of a dynamic viewpoint to associationism: Mill (1859) (ref. 74). On Bain: Ref. 48.

Introduced in Bain A. , The senses and the intellect (2nd edn, London, 1864).

Bain's notes to Mill J. (1869) (ref. 73); Mill J. S. , An examination of Sir William Hamilton's philosophy and of the principal philosophical questions discussed in his writings (3rd edn, London, 1867), ch. 13, significantly entitled, “The psychological theory of the primary qualities of matter”.

Jackson (1958) (ref. 38), i, 50–5.

Spencer H. , “Bain on the emotions and the will”, in Essays: Scientific, political and speculative (London, 1890–1, 3 vols), i, 240–64.

See ref. 39.

Spencer (1855) (ref. 39), 190–1 and part ii, ch. 10–12. Spencer is here indebted to Hamilton; he also borrowed Hamilton's concept of ‘secundo-primary’ qualities which he significantly renamed ‘statico-dynamical’.

For brief notice of this: Jackson S. W. , “Subjective experiences and the concept of energy”, Perspectives in biology and medicine, x (1967), 602–26.

Weber E. H. , “The sense of touch and common feeling”, in Rand B. (ed.), The classical psychologists. Selections illustrating psychology from Anaxagoras to Wundt (Boston, 1912), 557–61.

Sherrington C. S. , “On the proprio-ceptive system, especially in its reflex aspect”, Brain, xxix (1906), 467–82; The integrative action of the nervous system (2nd edn, New Haven, 1961), 132–3.

Debates between Bastian (1869) (ref. 96) and Bain (1864) (ref. 100) and Bain A. , “A note on Dr. Bastian's paper ‘On the physiology of thinking’”, Fortnightly review, n.s., v (1869), 493–8; Bastian H. C. , “The ‘muscular sense’ its nature and cortical localisation”, Brain, x (1887), 1–89, and discussion 89–139; Hall G. S. , “The muscular perception of space”, Mind, iii (1878), 433–50; Lewes G. H. , “Motor-feelings and the muscular sense”, Brain, i (1878), 14–28; MacKenzie W. L. , “Recent discussion on the muscular sense”, Mind, xii (1887), 429–33; Wundt W. , “Central innervation and consciousness”, Mind, i (1876), 161–78; bibliography in Henri (1899) (ref. 92). For the clinical evidence utilized in the debate: Jones E. G. , “The development of the ‘muscular sense’ concept during the nineteenth century and the work of H. Charlton Bastian”, Journal of the history of medicine, xxvii (1972), 298–311. The continuing use of ambiguous clinical evidence was one reason for the inconclusiveness of discussions prior to 1900.

For a recent discussion: Rose J. E. and Mountcastle V. B. , “Touch and kinesthesis”, in Field (1959) (ref. 28), 387–429.

Bain (1864) (ref. 100), 92 n., formulated this influential theoretical assumption; cf. ref. 103.

James W. , “The feeling of effort”, in Collected essays and reviews (London, 1920), 151–219; idem, (1890) (ref. 79), ii, 486–522. For criticism of the ‘mentalist’ theory of effort and interpretation of effort in the pragmatic context: Dewey J. , “The psychology of effort”, Philosophical review, vi (1897), 43–56.

Passmore (1968) (ref. 76), ch. 14.

Hume D. , (ed. Selby-Bigge L. A. , Oxford, 1888), part iii, section 14.

Ref. 69.

Letters to James Gregory, in Reid (1967) (ref. 69), i, 73–88; “Essays on the active powers of man”, in ibid ., ii, 512–22 and 603–8; Grave (1960) (ref. 69), 209–12.

Brown T. , Inquiry into the relation of cause and effect (3rd edn, Edinburgh, 1818), 317–9. Cf. Stewart (1860) (ref. 57), 211 ff.

Brown (1818) (ref. 118); idem, (1824) (ref. 10), i, Lecture vii.

Mill J. S. , A system of logic ratiocinative and inductive; being a connected view of the principles of evidence and the methods of scientific investigation (8th edn, London, 1872, 2 vols), i, 409–21. Cf. Huxley T. H. , Hume (London, 1902), 120–8.

Herschel J. F. W. , A preliminary discourse on the study of natural philosophy (2nd edn, London, 1851), 86–92.

Herschel J. F. W. , A treatise on astronomy (London, 1833), 232n.

Herschel J. F. W. , “On the origin of force”, Fortnightly review, i (1865), 435–42, reprinted in Familiar lectures on scientific subjects (London, 1866), 460–75.

Buchdahl G. , “Inductivist versus deductivist approaches in the philosophy of science as illustrated by some controversies between Whewell and Mill”, The monist, lv (1971), 343–67; Butts R. E. (ed.), William Whewell's theory of scientific method (Pittsburg, 1968); Strong E. W. , “William Whewell and John Stuart Mill: Their controversy about scientific knowledge”, Journal of the history of ideas, xvi (1955), 209–31.

Whewell W. , Astronomy and general physics considered with reference to Natural Theology (3rd edn, London, 1834). For the relation to the evolutionary debate: Ellegård A. , “The Darwinian theory and nineteenth century philosophies of science”, Journal of the history of ideas, xviii (1957), 362–93; idem, Darwin and the general reader. The reception of Darwin's theory of evolution in the British periodical press, 1859–1872 (Göteborg, 1958), ch. 9.

Whewell W. , The philosophy of the inductive sciences founded upon their history (2nd edn, reprint, ed. Buchdahl G. and Laudan L. , London, 1967, 2 vols), i, Aphorisms xxix, xlv–xlix, and 164–92.

ibid., i, Book 2, ch. 6, on visual perception.

Mansel H. L. , Psychology the test of moral and metaphysical philosophy (Oxford, 1855), 31; Martineau J. , “Mesmeric atheism”, Prospective review, vii (1851), 224–62, and “Is there any ‘axiom of causality’?”, Contemporary review, xiv (1870), 636–44, repr. in (1890–91) (ref. 10), iii, 567–79; Sedgwick A. , A discourse on the studies of the University of Cambridge (5th edn, London, 1850), xii–xiii; Solly T. , The will, Divine and human (Cambridge, 1856), 47–127; Tulloch J. , Theism: The witness of reason and nature to an all-wise and beneficient Creator (Edinburgh, 1855).

Mach E. , The science of mechanics: A critical and historical account of its development (trans. McCormack T. J. , 6th edn, La Salle, 1960).

Bain A. , Logic (London, 1870, 2 vols), ii, 124–6. This argument depended on J. S. Mill's view that the ultimate facts of knowledge will correspond to ultimate unanlysable states of consciousness; Mill (1872) (ref. 120), ii, 4–7.

Bain (1870) (ref. 130), ii, 17–36.

Bain A. , “On the correlation of force in its bearing on mind”, Macmillan's magazine, xvi (1867), 372–83; Heath D. D. , “Professor Bain on the doctrine of the correlation of force in its bearing on mind”, Contemporary review, viii (1868), 57–78; Tait P. G. , “Energy, and Prof. Bain's logic”, Nature, iii (1870), 89–90.

Spencer H. , “Replies to criticisms”, in (1890–91) (ref. 104), ii, 218–320; idem, (1862) (ref. 39), part ii, ch. 3–8. The principle of the conservation of energy (not understood in the physicists' terms) was a crucial stimulus to Spencer's attempt to subsume all events under a unified theory of evolutionary progress; Spencer H. , An autobiography (London, 1904, 2 vols), ii, 13–4, and The life and letters of Herbert Spencer (ed. Duncan D. , London, 1908), 550–1.

Spencer (1855) (ref. 39).

Another context, outside of natural theology, in which ‘force’ was employed as more than a mathematical function was in the writings of the nineteenth century German materialists. Cf. Büchner L. , Force and matter: Empiricophilosophical studies, intelligibly rendered (ed. Collingwood J. F. , London, 1864); Lange (1925) (ref. 15), Book ii, section 2, ch. 2.

For twentieth century support of revised theories of dynamic causality: Köhler W. , The place of value in a world of facts (London, 1939), 341–5; Mace C. A. Ewing A. C. Stout G. F. and Broad C. D. , “Mechanical and teleological causation”, Aristotelian Society, supplementary volume, xiv (1935), 22–112; Stout G. F. , Mind and matter (Cambridge, 1931); Whitehead A. N. , Modes of thought (Cambridge, 1938), and Symbolism. Its meaning and effect (Cambridge, 1958). The concept of power, relating to the experience of effort, is given a phenomenological analysis in Berndtson A. , “The meaning of power”, Philosophy and phenomenological research, xxxi (1970), 73–84. For the psychology of perception of causal process as a totality: Michotte A. , The perception of causality (London, 1963).

McGuire (1968) (ref. 3); Westfall R. S. , Force in Newton's physics. The science of dynamics in the seventeenth century (London, 1971), 395–400, 464–6, 506–12. On Newton's theology: McGuire J. E. and Rattansi P. M. , “Newton and the ‘Pipes of Pan’”, Notes and records of the Royal Society, xxi (1966), 108–43; Manuel F. E. , A portrait of Isaac Newton (Cambridge, Mass., 1968), ch. 6.

Newton I. , “[De gravitatione et aequipondio fluidorum]”, in Hall A. R. and Hall M. B. (eds), Unpublished scientific papers of Isaac Newton (Cambridge, 1962), 89–156; Koyré A. , Newtonian studies (London, 1965), 93. The importance to Boyle of God's volition, in a persisting tradition of nominalist ontology, is discussed in McGuire J. E. , “Boyle's conception of nature”, Journal of the history of ideas, xxxiii (1972), 523–42.

White (1971) (ref. 59).

Heimann and McGuire (1971) (ref. 3).

Leibniz G. W. , “New system of the nature of substances and of the communication between them, as well as of the union there is between soul and body”, in The monadology and other philosophical writings (trans. and ed. Latta R. , London, 1898), 297–318.

Related to Leibnizian mechanics in Westfall (1971) (ref. 137), 310–9. The extent of ‘mechanism’ in Descartes, Newton and Leibniz, in the light of the ambiguous ontological status of force, is raised in Gabbey A. , “Force and inertia in seventeenth-century dynamics”, Studies in history and philosophy of science, ii (1971), 1–67.

Berkeley G. , “A treatise concerning the principles of knowledge”, in Luce A. A. and Jessop T. E. (eds), The works of George Berkeley Bishop of Cloyne (London, 1949), ii, 1–113.

Many problems in eighteenth century physical science relevant to these conclusions are discussed in Meyerson E. , Identity and reality (trans. Loewenberg K. , New York, 1962).

For popular discussions: Faraday M. , On the various forces of nature and their relations to each other (ed. Crookes W. , London, 1873); Grove W. R. , On the correlation of physical forces (London, 1846); von Helmholtz H. “On the interaction of natural forces”, and “On the conservation of energy”, in Popular lectures on scientific subjects (trans. Atkinson E. , London, 1904, 2 vols), i, 137–74 and 277–317.

For Bain and Spencer: Ref. 132 and 133.

Carpenter W. B. , “On the relations of mind and matter”, British and foreign medico-chirurgical review, x (1852), 506–18, and “The phasis of force”, National review, iv (1857), 359–94, and (1853) (ref. 37), 796–8, and “On mind and will in nature”, Contemporary review, xx (1872), 738–62; Jones H. B. , Croonian lectures on matter and force (London, 1868); Laycock T. , Mind and brain: Or the correlations of consciousness and organisation; with their applications to philosophy, zoology, physiology, mental pathology and the practice of medicine (Edinburgh, 1860, 2 vols); Maudsley H. , “The correlation of mental and physical force; or man a part of nature”, Journal of mental science, vi (1859), 50–78; Morell (1862) (ref. 38), 16–20; Anonymous, “Mind and the science of energy”, British quarterly review, lix (1874), 100–30.

Young R. M. , “The role of psychology in the nineteenth-century evolutionary debate”, in Henle M. Jaynes J. and Sullivan J. (eds), Contributions to the history of psychology (New York, forthcoming).

Many of the papers delivered to the Metaphysical Society, cf. Brown A. W. , The Metaphysical Society. Victorian minds in crisis, 1869–1880 (New York, 1947, and reprint, New York, 1972); Campbell G. D. , 8th Duke of Argyll, The reign of law (London, 1867, and reprint, Farnborough, forthcoming); Graham W. , The creed of science, religious, moral and social (London, 1881, and reprint, Farnborough, forthcoming); Herschel (1865) (ref. 122); Carpenter W. B. , “Man the interpreter of nature”, in Nature and man. Essays scientific and philosophical (London, 1888, and reprint, Farnborough, 1970), 185–210; Martineau J. , “The place of mind in nature and intuition in man”, Contemporary review, xix (1872), 606–23; Wallace A. R. , “The limits of natural selection as applied to man”, in Natural selection and tropical nature: Essays on descriptive and theoretical biology (London, 1891, and reprint, Farnborough, 1969), 186–214. Cf. Heimann P. M. , “The Unseen Universe: Physics and the philosophy of nature in Victorian Britain”, British journal for the history of science, vi (1972), 73–79; Smith R. , “Alfred Russel Wallace: Philosophy of nature and man”, British journal for the history of science, vi (1972), 177–99; ref. 128.

Aesch Gode-Von (1966) (ref. 26); Knight D. M. , “The physical sciences and the Romantic movement”, History of science, ix (1970), 54–75; Rothschuh (1968) (ref. 2); Ellenberger (1970) (ref. 44).

There were complex relations with Faculty Psychology and the critical philosophy of Kant. For Kant's critical view of psychology: Mischel T. , “Kant and the possibility of a science of psychology”, The monist, li (1967), 599–622; Wolman B. , “Immanuel Kant and his impact on psychology”, in Wolman (1968) (ref. 37), 229–47.

Based on the writings of Engels: Engels F. , Dialectics of nature (trans. and ed. Dutt C. , London, 1940), and Herr Eugen Dühring's revolution in science. (Anti-Dühring) (trans. Burns E. , New York, 1966); Lichtheim G. , Marxism. An historical and critical study (2nd edn, New York, 1965), 244–58. For logical criticism of dialectical materialism: Hook S. , Reason, social myths and democracy (New York, 1966), 183–224.

Brožek J. , “USSR: Current activities in the history of physiology and psychology”, Journal of the history of biology, iv (1971), 185–208, and “The psychology and physiology of behaviour: Some recent Soviet writings on their history”, History of science, x (1971), 56–87; Brožek J. and Slobin D. I. , “Toward a history of Soviet psychology: A set of bibliographies”, Soviet psychology, vi (1968), 8–12; London I. D. , “A historical survey of psychology in the Soviet Union”, Psychological bulletin, xlvi (1949), 241–77; Payne T. R. , S. L. Rubinštejn and the philosophical foundations of Soviet psychology (Dordrecht, 1968). For the background of Soviet science: Joravsky D. , Soviet Marxism and natural science 1917–1932 (London, 1961).