From teaching psychology in conqueror South Africa to teaching African swa moya in the psychology curriculum: critical reflections and experiences in a Masters Clinical Psychology programme

Abstract

The democratic transition in conqueror South Africa in 1994 from the colonial and apartheid education system to the current epoch did not transform and address the epistemological and ethical injustices embedded in the psychology curriculum. This is despite the Constitutional provision for the exercise and enjoyment of cultural rights by the multiple ethnic groups existing in the country. Despite the fact that most departments of psychology in conqueror South African are led by Blacks and the staff and students composed mainly of Black African bodies, the philosophies, methodologies, and theories which are taught in the psychology curriculum still reflect the dominance of the conqueror’s epistemological paradigm manifesting in the exclusion of African swa moya (life discerning power of the soul). From the viewpoint of the conquered, the epistemological and ethical justification on which African experiences are excluded from the psychology curriculum are questionable. In order to fully gain legitimacy, relevance, and reflect the multiplicity of the realities of the current student population, and to serve the local communities, psychology in Africa in general and conqueror South Africa in particular must be premised on swa moya curriculum. Swa moya (life discerning power of the soul) is the resolute reaffirmation of African humanness. It also recognises the humanisation of the colonial conqueror and its posterity. In this article, I present the epistemological and ethical basis for an authentic African swa moya, as well as the development and practical implementation of swa moya curriculum in the Master of Science in Clinical Psychology training programme that is currently being taught at Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University.

Keywords

African epistemological paradigm African ‘psychology’clinical psychology training psychology curriculum ubu-ntu

Introduction

The democratic transition in conqueror South Africa in 1994 from the colonial and apartheid education system to the current epoch did not transform and address the epistemological and ethical injustices embedded in the psychology curriculum. This is despite the Constitutional provision for the exercise and enjoyment of cultural rights by the multiple ethnic groups existing in the country. Despite the political changes that saw Blacks appointed to lead departments of psychology and more Black staff hired and students being admitted into psychology programmes, psychology curriculum still reflects the dominance of the epistemological paradigm of the colonial conqueror manifesting in the exclusion of African swa moya, spiritual matters. The postcolonial and post-apartheid era, conqueror South Africa included, is haunted by the Eurocentric hegemony which still monopolises the process of production, regulation, and dissemination of knowledge (Chimakonam & Nweke, 2019). Historically, indigenous knowledge systems, including swa moya the world over were, are still ignored, marginalised, and excluded from the broader human knowledge landscape as a result of the subtle exercise of ‘the right of conquest’ by the conqueror. The exclusion of African ‘psychological’ traditions deprives the profession of some very important multiple indigenous epistemes and traditions. It should be noted from the very onset that the concept Africa is epistemologically and historically contestable (Mazrui, 1986). The experience and concept of Africa since its conquest by the Romans is, following Mazrui, used here ‘under protest’ (Mazrui, 1983, p. 38). It is even more problematic to use ‘Africa’ and ‘psychology’ in the African context because both are concepts which are associated with ‘the right of conquest’ in Africa and the African diaspora. The focus of this article is however not on the critique of the concept Africa, but on ‘African psychology’ and swa moya. The naming of Africa as a contestable subject will therefore not form the basis of the argument in this article.

From the viewpoint of the conquered, the epistemological and ethical justification on which African experiences are excluded from the psychology curriculum are questionable. This article argues that for psychology to be relevant, reflective of local experiences, and to serve the Black majority in conqueror South Africa, there is an epistemological and ethical responsibility and necessity, by all, especially African scholars, researchers, and psychologists to recognise and teach African epistemologies to affirm their humanity and to place themselves on equal plane with other people of the world. In the context of psychology, this means that the African conception, definition and practice of ‘psychology’ understood from an African viewpoint as African swa moya, should be the basis of psychology curriculum in conqueror South Africa. Since all human beings have the right to exist and to reason, the multiplicity of their experiences must be recognised, promoted, and included in the curriculum at an equal level to all other human experiences. According to Biko (1978/2004), no race possesses the monopoly of beauty or intelligence, and there is therefore room for all humanity to exist as equals. There is therefore the ethical necessity to restore and promote the dignity of African people and the preservation of their knowledge systems, identity, and languages.

The imperative to affirm indigenous knowledge systems

The restoration, promotion, and preservation of the dignity of the African people, their identity, and languages are necessary to affirm their ontological equality with other people of the world. Properly construed, education should play this critical role in society. In this regard, Ramose (2016) argues that

The construction of the education curriculum demands a specific vision of the kind of human being education is designed to deliver to society. This is always an ethical issue because the human right to freedom ought to be recognised, respected and promoted whenever there is intention to have human beings participate in a specific educational programme. This ethical necessity is even more poignant in Africa since colonisation, because the coloniser disregarded the African peoples’ right to education and imposed an epistemological paradigm which continues to dominate the educational curriculum in Africa. (p. 546)

The World’s Indigenous Peoples’ decade (1994–2004) marked a significant attempt to depart from the domination of Western epistemologies in general, and the liberation from the bondage of an imposed philosophical and psychological paradigm in particular (Thesee & Carr, 2012). This international initiative and period inaugurated and reaffirmed the view that time had now come for the indigenous peoples of the world, including those in conqueror South Africa to restore, protect, respect, and honour their knowledge systems for epistemic justice. This would go a long way in reinstating a truly pan-epistemic education system and curriculum in Africa in general and conqueror South Africa in particular. In practical terms in the context of psychology, this means that African swa moya ought to be conceived, defined, and presented first and foremost by Africans themselves from the viewpoint of their ontology, cultural experience, and epistemological paradigm.

The advent of democracy in conqueror South Africa in 1994 opened the way to bring an end to the epistemologically and ethically unjust racist dogmatism and scientism, and provide a more pluriversal pedagogic approach for epistemic and social justice (Ramose, 2020). Despite this political transition, the ways, means, and processes of knowledge production in public life and institutions of higher learning in conqueror South Africa remain controlled by the conquerors. This then means that African ways of being, knowing, and doing are excluded and marginalised from the broader knowledge landscape and the educational curriculum. The ethical basis for this marginalisation and exclusion of indigenous knowledge, unleashed through the unjust wars of colonisation waged by the West, and the subsequent imposition of their epistemologies on indigenous people remains questionable (Ramose, 2017; Thesee & Carr, 2012). The conqueror education system is therefore unjustly and falsely assumed to provide ‘superior’ and ‘rational’ ‘scientific’ knowledge to humanity in general, and Africans in particular. The continued unquestionable use and sustained reference to the term ‘African psychology’ in African universities by both Western and African scholars, researchers, and psychologists is the point in case. The argument advanced in this article is that the Western understanding of the term ‘psychology’ is different from the African conception of the concept swa moya. The imposition of the concept ‘psychology’ is not only a problem experienced in psychology, but a problem of colonisation for Africans in Africa and the African diaspora. On this basis, imposition in whatever form by the conquerors is always an epistemological, ethical, socio-cultural-political, and justice issue. In order to deal with imposition, Mignolo (2011) calls for epistemic disobedience and epistemological conviviality to reject the colonial reality imposed on indigenous conquered people.

The call for curriculum transformation and redesign in psychology in general and clinical psychology in particular to reflect indigenous worldviews and experiences is not new. In response to this call, the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) recommended in the early 2000 for Psychology to transform and be appropriate to different culture contexts (Mkhize et al., 2014; Pillay et al., 2013). Despite calls for transformation in psychology, the discipline remains dominated by the conqueror’s epistemological paradigms which are at variance with the cultural experiences of the conquered. Chabani Manganyi’s (1973, 1977) seminal works, Being Black in the World and Alienation and the Body in a Racist Society: A Study of the Society That Invented Soweto, exemplify the Black experiences in the world generally and conqueror South Africa in particular. Following conqueror South Africa’s democratic dispensation, there has been an escalation in calls for curriculum transformation in professional psychology programmes (Baloyi & Ramose, 2016; Mkhize et al., 2014; Nwoye, 2015, 2018; Pillay et al., 2013; Segalo & Cakata, 2017). These authors further provide practical ways to implement the changes they recommend. In response to this call, some universities in Africa and conqueror South Africa have started to include and teach ‘African psychology’ in psychology curriculum (Nwoye, 2018). For example, the university of KwaZulu-Natal and the University of Limpopo are leading in research and teaching ‘African psychology’ and indigenous knowledge systems.

When he was still employed by the University of South Africa (UNISA), the author of this article introduced the African Epistemology Module in the Master of Arts in Clinical Psychology training programme for the first time in 2005. Upon moving to Dr George Mukhari Academic Hospital & Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University (SMU) in 2013, the African Epistemology module content was progressively developed further and introduced in the MSc Clinical Psychology training programme in 2014. Through the input of an expert in African philosophy and ethics, the module content was enhanced to reflect the African orientation and experience, known as African swa moya-matters spiritual. The purpose is to give an authentic African conception and meaning of the term to reflect the ontological and axiological presence of the belief systems, epistemologies, living conditions, and realities of indigenous peoples in Africa in general and conqueror South Africa in particular (Nwoye, 2015; Ramose, 2020; Ramose & Baloyi, 2020; Thesee & Carr, 2012). The use of indigenous vernacular languages is an historical affirmation that these languages pre-existed the inhuman and violent arrival of the conquerors from the West. It will also give effect to the long awaited practical implementation of indigenous languages in academia to reconceptualise African experiences, conditions, religiosity, and spirituality which encompass the cosmic and invisible realm of swikwembu/badimo, the living dead to whom most Africans subscribe for sources of wholistic meaning and purpose in life. This all-encompassing African sense of wholeness is consistent with Ramose’s (2002) submission that

Thus person in African traditional thought is simultaneously a physical and a metaphysical being. (p. 65)

In support of this view, Nwoye (2015) argues that

the African universe, unlike the Aristotelian (Eurocentric) universe, is an interpreted universe . . . African psychology rejects the emphasis on objective, quantification and measurements as a limiting methodology in the holistic study of human beings and their existential context that encompass more than the visible, tangible realities. (p. 107)

Ramose and Nwoye’s arguments clearly indicate that the Eurocentric understanding of the terms ‘psychology’ and ‘African psychology’ which lay emphasis on the objective, visible quantitative measuring of human behaviour and the universe fall short of comprehending the intangible and invisible African universe which encompasses the ontology of the living dead, aptly referred to the ontology of the invisible beings, swa moya. The challenge that African researchers, scholars, and psychologists need to confront is to apply African concepts and models that accurately reflect African peoples’ ontological understanding of being human and their universe (Bujo, 1998; Nobles, 1986). The overwhelming majority of African scholars and psychologists who call for curriculum redesign and the use of indigenous languages continues to use the concepts ‘psychology’ and ‘African psychology’ as if these concepts are readily translatable to African words and associated meanings. There are vast differences between the African and Western conceptions of the world and psychology specifically, and these differences should be acknowledged and reflected as conversational and transformational dialogue (Healy, 2011) instead of resorting to the usual default mode of translations. Ramose (2020) succinctly states that

the fundamental point of this challenge is that no single human language on Earth has a prior, superior and exclusive right to be the medium of scientific discourse. (p. 60)

Unless African scholars, researchers, and psychologists are courageous to sustain the challenge the dominance of the scientific language of the conqueror, they will continue to use alien Western concepts that are totally at variance with the African experience and reality.

The use of the concept African ‘psychology’ in Africa and conqueror South Africa

Although there have been calls to move away from over reliance on Eurocentric approaches in psychology since the late 1960s through to the 2000s (Akbar, 2004; Baloyi & Ramose, 2016; Manganyi, 1973, 1977; Mkhize, 2004; Nobles, 1986; Nsamenang, 2007; Nwoye, 2015, 2018; Pillay et al., 2013; Pillay & Kramers, 2003) what is glaringly apparent in the literature by African and conqueror South African psychology scholars, researchers, psychologists, and critics of Western psychology is how readily they accept and use the concept ‘African psychology’ with questioning scant of its applicability and meaning. There is a general agreement that some psychologists and researchers in the United States, the African diaspora, and conqueror South Africa have been and continue to grapple with the implication of using and translating the concept ‘psychology’, and what an ‘African psychology’ should look like (Segalo & Cakata, 2017).

Properly construed, science is open-ended and cannot claim absolute truth (Ramose, 2016). Instead, it should promote multiple truths. The unintended consequence of promoting the colonisers’ knowledge systems and languages in the academy as the superior medium of scientific discourse, research, and psychotherapy is, for example, the tendency to translate indigenous languages into English. This article intends to illustrate how African swa moya, being the ‘psychology’ of the conquered and marginalised indigenous people, as an integral part of healing and research discourse of ‘African psychology’ (Nwoye, 2015, 2018; Segalo & Cakata, 2017) found expression and relevance in the Clinical Psychology training programme at SMU (Baloyi & Ramose, 2016; Ramose & Baloyi, 2020). The conception and articulation of African swa moya is not and should not be viewed as a translation of ‘African psychology’ but rather a reflection of the epistemological and ethical necessity and process of Africanising the psychology curriculum in conqueror South Africa. I do not in any way claim that African swa moya taught in the Clinical Psychology training programme at SMU represents and reflects the totality of what ‘African psychology’ curriculum should be, nor do I claim that this course is superior to any ‘African psychology’-oriented courses offered at any university.

Using vernacular languages in psychology

There is generally an agreement by psychologists of African descent to use indigenous languages in ‘psychology’ due to the inextricable relationship between indigenous languages and indigenous knowledge (Manganyi, 2013; Mkhize et al., 2014; Mkhize & Ndimande-Hlongwa, 2014; Nsamenang, 2007; Nwoye, 2015, 2018; Segalo & Cakata, 2017). Despite this realisation, the overwhelming majority of African scholars, researchers, and psychologists both in the African continent and the African diaspora continue to use the concepts ‘psychology’ and ‘African psychology’, as if African languages do not possess the scientific viability to articulate African realities and cultural experiences. The Western conception of ‘psychology’ is limited to the visible, measurable, mostly cognitive, behavioural, and emotional attributes of human conduct. Therefore, attempts by Africans to define and articulate African swa moya, based on indigenous African epistemologies using the term ‘African psychology’, will always be a misrepresentation of the African worldview. By using the concept ‘African psychology’, Africans are unwittingly importing Western philosophies, theorisations, and epistemological frame of reference into the local realities. An interesting question to ask is, ‘why is it that African psychologists in conqueror South Africa who are mainly in charge of psychology training programmes and the majority of whom are teaching psychology syllabus continue to use the conqueror’s language and concepts?’ ‘Does this mean that African “psychologists” cannot liberate themselves from the psychological oppression and inferiority complex (Biko, 1978/2004), using their own linguistic expressions independent from the epistemological bondage of the master conqueror?’ These questions affirm, rather than deny the ethical and scientific necessity for a mutually enriching dialogue – on the plane of ethical equality among the epistemologies of the world. Logic dictates that; A swikoteke kuri vanhu va tirhisa tindzimi timbe na tinhlamuselo ta marito yo karhi lawa yanga riki ririmi ra vona ku ti thya na ku tiphata khwatsi handle ko lahlekeriwa hi mongo na hlamuselo ya minongoti (it is not possible for people to use foreign languages and concepts to name and define themselves accurately, without losing the essence and meaning of the concepts used). The use of the concept swa moya in this article illustrates the epistemological justification for the scientific viability and applicability of indigenous languages to reflect African knowledge systems in the construction of African swa moya curriculum. As Ramose (2020) plausibly argued,

Accordingly, the use of my vernacular is fundamentally an ethical plea for epistemic and social justice. (p. 61)

Similarly, in the context of conqueror South Africa, there is an epistemic and ethical imperative to meet the national students’ ‘fees must fall’ movement demand for a transformed curriculum. This process requires a transformational dialogue, predicated on epistemological equality of knowledge systems (Healy, 2011 p. 65). Therefore, a call to design and teach swa moya curriculum which is premised on the African epistemology demands that designers of psychology curriculum, lecturers, and clinical psychologists be ethically responsible by ensuring that African experiences form the basis of the swa moya ‘psychology’ curriculum.

The ethical imperative for designing and teaching African swa moya in conqueror South Africa

To teach swa moya is to be ethically and epistemologically in search of epistemic justice for people who seek psychological services and healing. To fully appreciate the meaning of African swa moya, it is important to understand the inextricable relationship between the ontology of the visible and invisible beings, and its relation to the yet-to-be-born. In the African traditional thought, moya, loosely translated as spirit or soul, is not seen as separate from other cosmic forces. Instead, the visible and invisible forces pose an ontology of interdependence and interconnectedness and coexist in a complementary fashion (Bujo, 1998). The foundation and edifice of African life in its wholeness is moya/umoya/mweya. Reference to African life force moya here does not represent a specific ethnocultural group, but reflects a basic historical continuity, consciousness and cultural unity and ‘family atmosphere’ (Grills, 2002; Ramose, 2002). For Africans, be-ing manifests in a body which is souled, and a souled body justifies talk about swa moya. This is the meaning of African swa moya. A soul embodied body belongs to the ontology of visible beings, whereas moya belongs to the ontology of invisible beings. The ontology of visible beings has an orientation to the future in so far as it recognises the obligation to serve the ontology of the yet-to-be-born. This is the meaning of the onto-triadic conception of community according to the African perspective (Grills, 2002; Ramose, 2002). The hyphenated be-ing reflects the ever unfolding indivisible one-ness and whole-ness of the African ontology. (Ramose, 2002, p. 41).

The content of the preceding paragraph is a theoretical exposition of the African conception of community. At the practical level, this is expressed by a variety of proverbs and idioms in many African indigenous languages. For example, Skhakhane (1988, pp. 6–7) shows the following IsiZulu variations of umoya:

Umoya obandayo = cold wild

Ukuphuma umoya = the exit of the spirit, to die

Ukuffaza umoya = to springle the spirit, to spread rumour

Umoya umubi = bad spirit

Unomoya = a person has a spirit, has life

Ramose (2002, p. 69) provides variations of the Setswana/Sesotho meanings of moya:

Moya o afoka = the wind is blowing

O na le moya o mobe = he has bad intentions

Go na le moya o mobe = the atmosphere is bad

O tsenwe ke moya o mobe = he is possessed by bad spirit

Moya wa gagwe o ko fase = he is low spirited/depressed

The examples above show the varied conditions and meanings of the concept umoya/moya, depending on the context within which it is used. What is apparent from these various meanings is that the concept umoya/moya cannot simply be translated into spirit or psyche without losing its meaning. In the examples above, umoya/moya except in the case of wind is not separate or independent of the human body. Moya in this case is embodied. Other examples which illustrate moya existing in the ontology of the living dead are as follows:

Moya o tswile nameng = the spirit has deserted the body or flesh, transitioned

Moya o iketse badimong = the spirit has gone to the living dead, or transitioned

Moya wa gagwe ga wa robala = his soul is not rested or not transitioned peacefully

Moya wa gagwe o kgarakgatshegile = his spirit is troubled or unhappy

Moya wa gagwe o ikhuditse = his spirit is resting or in a peaceful space

In the expressions and meanings above, umoya/moya has transitioned from the physical body to be in the ontology of the invisible beings. For Africans, this is the continuation of life in the spiritual realm, which is located in the ontology of the living dead. This constitutes the African understanding of developmental stages. For traditional Africans, death does not mark the end of life, but a transition into another stage of existence. When dealing with African communities, psychologists ought to take this conception of be-ing into consideration. The teaching of African swa moya in the training of clinical psychologists is the recognition of the existence and influence of swikwenbu/badimo, the living dead, and the relational harmony which defines the African conception of wellness and health. This conception of wellness and health should inform psychologists’ process of diagnosis and therapeutic treatment when dealing with afflicted African people.

The conceptual and practical aspects reflected in the preceding paragraph, together with the content of this paragraph, are aspects of the philosophy of Ubu-ntu. The philosophy of bo-tho/ubu-ntu is reflected in swa moya curriculum below.

African swa moya curriculum for clinical psychologists

The inclusion of African swa moya in African universities’ psychology curriculum is of clinical significance because it forms the basis of understanding the African epistemological paradigm for clinical psychologists working with indigenous African communities. It is ethically imperative that psychologists working in indigenous African communities in general should demonstrate cultural sensitivity and competency for ‘psychology’ to be relevant and meaningful to these communities. Arguably cultural sensitivity and cultural competence should form the ethical foundation of swa moya for every psychologist practicing in Africa in general, and conqueror South Africa in particular.

MSc Clinical Psychology structure and content of swa moya module at SMU

The MSc in Clinical Psychology at SMU is a 2-year full-time course and comprises theory and practice. Different traditional Western theories, therapeutic interventions, and modalities are still taught in the course. The African epistemology, swa moya module forms part of the course and is presented in both the first (Master 1) and the second year (Masters 2). The Masters 1 module focuses more on theory, while the Masters 2 module puts more emphasis on the practice of the theory taught in Masters 1.

The following broad topics are covered in the Masters 1 swa moya theory module

Introduction to the African research context, research process, the researcher, and the researched;

Introduction to African philosophy, swa moya, and indigenous research methodologies;

African indigenous swa moya, ‘psychology’ theories, their relevance and applicability in South Africa;

The significance of understanding history, cultural heritage, belief systems, traditional practice, and rituals;

The philosophy of Ubu-ntu and its relevance, meaning and applicability when working in indigenous African communities;

African concept of ethics;

Indigenous African healing/therapeutic modalities;

Relevance and implication of communal approaches to healing/therapy;

Introduction to seminal work by African scholars and philosophers;

The African conception of personhood, family and community, human dignity, humanity, and the human identity as defined from the African point of view;

Negotiate entry into the client, family and community systems through Ubu-ntu philosophy and African ethics;

How students locate themselves (their identity, relevance, position, power) in families and communities they work with;

Theorisation of the psychological impact of poverty, health problems, unemployment, women, the elderly and children abuse, landlessness, economic deprivation, xenophobia, femicides, and homicides;

African Community project designs and intervention focusing on the above topics (this is the practicum in Masters 1).

This module departs from the point that since the colonisation of the continent the indigenous Africans continue to coexist with the posterity of the initial colonial conquerors. This coexistence is subject to the historical-ethical critique showing how ‘psychology’ in particular continues to raise the ethical question of epistemic and social justice.

In the second year, the African swa moya module puts emphasis on the practical application of the knowledge covered in the first year. One day a week is dedicated to practicums in a clinical setting, namely psychiatry, medical, and out-patient clinic. Students receive supervision on all cases seen during practicums. The following broad topics are covered during tutorials:

African centred swa moya ‘psychology’;

Basic principles of an African centred swa moya;

Ethics in African swa moya;

Working with the African swa moya human dignity, spirituality, and identity;

The concept of cause in African philosophy;

Understanding mental health issues of African indigenous people;

African indigenous swa moya healing/therapeutic approaches and modalities;

Bongaka and psychiatry;

Swa moya conceptualisation of personhood/self, family and community in the African thought;

The African swa moya conception of wellness, health, and illness;

The African experience.

The African experience module ensures that the student is now exposed to the African experience as a living reality. To this the student must apply the techniques learned and assess both their applicability and effectiveness.

The offerings at both Masters 1 and 2 reveal an explicit African-based content. This is placed in a critical dialogical encounter with other epistemologies of ‘psychology’. It is within this crucible of dialogue among epistemologies of ‘psychology’ in the world that we find the potential for the transformation of ‘psychology’. The translation of the potentiality into actuality could lead even to rethinking the appropriateness of ‘psychology’ in general and clinical ‘psychology’ in particular as the scientific discipline focused on mental health.

Conclusion

It has been argued in this article that the exclusion of African indigenous worldviews and experiences from the ‘psychology’ and clinical psychology curriculum does not have any epistemological and pedagogic basis. The design and teaching of African swa moya is both an ethical and an epistemic necessity for the implementation of a truly transformed clinical ‘psychology’ curriculum in conqueror South African. This was illustrated by presenting the theoretical and practical implementation of swa moya module offered in the Masters in clinical ‘psychology’ training programme at SMU. The epistemological and the African linguistic viability demonstrated by swa moya curriculum presents a challenge to the discipline of ‘psychology’ in Africa and conqueror South Africa in particular. Swa moya presents concrete form of African epistemology paradigm of curriculum trans-substantiation beyond the current call for curriculum transformation as a way forward towards pedagogic parity and epistemic justice.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

References

Akbar

(2004). Papers in African psychology. Mind Production.

Baloyi

Ramose

M. B.

(2016). Psychology and psychotherapy redefined from the viewpoint of the African experience. Alternation Journal, 18, 12–35.

Biko

(2004). I write what I like. Picador Africa. (Original work published 1978)

Bujo

(1998). The ethical dimension of community: The African model and the dialogue between North and South. Paulines Publication Africa.

Chimakonam

J. O.

Nweke

V. C.

(2019). African philosophy and the right to know. In Lauer

Yitah

(Eds.), The tenacity of truthfulness: Philosophical assays in honour of Mogobe Bernard Ramose (pp. 129–163). EARS.

Grills

(2002). African-centered psychology. In Parham

T. A.

(Ed.), Counselling persons of African descent (pp. 10–24). SAGE.

Healy

(2011). Rethinking deliberative democracy: From deliberative discourse to transformative dialogue. Philosophy and Social Criticism, 37(3), 295–311.

Manganyi

N. C.

(1973). Being black in the world. Ravan Press.

Manganyi

N. C.

(1977). Alienation and the body in a racist society: A study of the society that invented Soweto. NOK.

10.

Manganyi

N. C.

(2013). On becoming a psychologist in apartheid South Africa. South African Journal of Psychology, 43(1), 278–288.

11.

Mazrui

A. A.

(1986). The Africans: A tripple heritage. BBC Publications.

12.

Mazrui

A.A.

(1983). Africa: The political culture of nationhood and the political economy of the state. Millennium- Journal of International Studies, 12(3), 201–210.

13.

Mignolo

(2011). Geopolitics of sensing and knowing: On (de) coloniality, border thinking and epistemic disobedience. Postcolonial Studies, 14(3), 273–283.

14.

Mkhize

(2004). Psychology: An African perspective. In Hook

(Ed.), Critical psychology (pp. 24–52). UCT PRESS.

15.

Mkhize

Dumisa

Chitindingu

(2014). Democratising access and success: IsiZulu terminology development and bilingual instruction in psychology at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. Alternation Special Edition, 13, 128–154.

16.

Mkhize

Ndimande-Hlongwa

(2014). African languages, indigenous knowledge systems (IKS), and the transformation of the humanities and social sciences in higher education. Alternation, 21(2), 10–37.

17.

Nobles

W. W.

(1986). African psychology: Toward its reclamation, reascension & revitalization. Institute for the Advanced Study of Black Family Life and Culture.

18.

Nsamenang

A. B.

(2007). A critical peek at early childhood care and education in Africa. Child Health and Education, 1(1), 14–26.

19.

Nwoye

(2015). What is African psychology the psychology of? Theory & Psychology, 25(1), 96–116.

20.

Nwoye

(2018). African psychology and the emergence of the Madiban tradition. Theory & Psychology, 28(1), 36–64.

21.

Pillay

A. L.

Ahmed

Bawa

(2013). Clinical psychology training in South Africa: A call to action. South African Journal of Psychology, 43(1), 46–58.

22.

Pillay

A. L.

Kramers

A. L.

(2003). South African clinical psychology, employment (in) equity and the ‘brain drain’. South African Journal of Psychology, 33(1), 52–60.

23.

Ramose

M. B.

(2002). African philosophy through ubuntu. Mond Books.

24.

Ramose

M. B.

(2016). Teacher and student with critical pan-epistemic orientation: An ethical necessity for Africanising the educational curriculum in Africa. South African Journal of Philosophy, 35(4), 546–555.

25.

Ramose

M. B.

(2017). Wiping away the tears of the ocean: Ukusula izinyebezi zolwandle. Theoria, 64(4), 22–57.

26.

Ramose

M. B.

(2020). On finding the cenerarium for uncremated ubuntu: On the street wisdom of philosophy. In de Sousa Santos

(Ed.), Epistemologies of the South, Knowledge born in the struggle (pp. 58–77). Routledge.

27.

Ramose

M. B.

Baloyi

(2020). Challenging the teaching of research methodologies in pursuit of epistemic and social justice. Psychology in Society, 60, 9–30.

28.

Segalo

Cakata

(2017). A psychology in our own language: Redefining psychology in an African context. Psychology in Society, 54, 29–54.

29.

Skhakhane

J. Z.

(1988). African spirituality. Boleswa occasional papers in theology and religion. African spirituality, 1. Gaborone: Quickprint.

30.

Thesee

Carr

P. R.

(2012). The 2011 International year of Peoples of African descent (IYPAD):The paradox of colonized invisibility within the promise of mainstream visibility. Decolonization, Indigeneity, Education & Society, 1(1), 148–180.